Chapter #8

Lecture No. 36

Russian culture in the 19th century

First half of the 19th century

Education and science

At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education finally took shape in Russia. Held in 1803 The reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial town, and a school in every county town. Parish schools were also created in the countryside, they accepted children of different classes. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions.

IN 1811 was opened Alexander (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (including A.S. Pushkin),

The government of Alexander I paid great attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University in Russia before that, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Derpt (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilensky (1804), Petersburg (1819).

Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-separated. Parish one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the "bottom". They taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic for a year. The children of merchants, artisans, and philistines were admitted to county three-year schools. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. Children of nobles, officials, merchants of the first guild studied in seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of teaching the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. The control over universities, which were considered sources of "unreliability", was strengthened. In 1835, the universities were deprived of the status of internal autonomy.

The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, is increasing. In 1832, the Imperial Military Academy was opened, in 1855, the Artillery and Engineering Academy.

The growth of industrial production and the development of technology caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational schools increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. The Commercial Academy, the Agricultural School, the Mining School, and the Technical School were opened in Moscow.

The development of domestic science also contributed to the improvement of the education system.

Scientific discoveries

Biology
Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky	Refuted the claim that plants and animals are immutable, he argued that earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo fundamental changes over time under the influence of natural causes.
Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky	He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are due to natural causes and are subject to the general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process.
Karl Maksimovich Baer	A serious step forward in substantiating ideas about the development of living organisms was the work "The Universal Law of the Development of Nature".
Medicine
Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov	Professor of the Medico-Surgical Academy, founder of military field surgery. During the years of the Crimean War, for the first time in the field, he used anesthesia during an operation, used a fixed plaster cast for the treatment of fractures.
Mathematics
Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky	Created non-Euclidean geometry
Physics
Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov	Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - a prototype of the future electric light bulb.
Boris Semenovich Jacobi	Invented the electric motor, electroforming - a method of applying a thin layer of metal to the desired surface using electricity. Invented the direct-printing machine for the telegraph
Emil Khristianovich Lenz	Established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law0, and a year later, on this basis, an electric motor was invented
Pavel Lvovich Schilling	Created the world's first practical electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires
Chemistry
Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff	Developed a method for obtaining glucose.
German Ivanovich Hess	He discovered the basic law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy in relation to chemical processes
Petr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilyevich Lyubarsky	Laid the foundation of powder metallurgy
Science in production
Pavel Petrovich Anosov	Developed four options for the technology of producing damask steel
Yefim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics	Built the first steam railway
Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov	Created sustainable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry
Story
Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin	Wrote a 12-volume "History of the Russian State"
Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov	Wrote "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes

Russian pioneers and travelers

Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky	In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis of the published Atlas of the South Seas.
Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev	In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on boats (single-masted ships) "Vostok" and "Mirny". In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called "the ice continent." After stopping in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands. For 751 days of navigation, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, valuable collections were brought, data from observations of the waters of the world ocean and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind
Alexander Andreevich Baranov	He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. As a merchant, he led the search for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything necessary. It was he who managed to secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia
Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky	In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur.
Evfimy Vasilyevich Putyatin	In 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelsky, he laid the foundation for securing the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.

Art culture

"Golden Age" of Russian Literature

In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its "golden age". She raised the most important social problems, one of the main among them was the problem of strengthening national identity. Writers and poets turned to the historical past of the country, tried to find answers to modern questions in it.

An important feature of the development of literature and art of this time was the rapid change in artistic trends and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.

The dominant trend in Russian and European art at the beginning of the 19th century remained classicism. His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century, he was more connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic Wars, the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.

The most striking example of a combination of literary work and the activities of a historian was the work of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin. In the story “Marfa Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod”, he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow) traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thus a united and strong Russian state. These thoughts were imbued with his scientific work "History of the Russian State".

The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, the moral traits of a person of previous eras.

One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism. Romanticism is a trend in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero who opposes himself, the world of his soul to the world around him.

Russian romanticism was distinguished by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, the assertion of a strong, liberated personality.

The creator of Russian romanticism is Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads "Lyudmila" and "Svetlana" became models of the style of new literature.

In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.

At the beginning of their work, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by vital optimism, an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they that marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. outstanding examples of literature in this direction were the works of the late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama "Boris Godunov", the stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky", "Belkin's Tale", the poem "The Bronze Horseman", etc. as well as Lermontov's novel "A Hero of Our Time".

In the 20-50s. another new trend is gaining ground - realism. His followers tried to depict the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the currents of the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and the very content of the works requiring changes.

The founder of the "natural school" (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. One of the brightest works of this artistic direction was his story "The Overcoat", which, along with his other works: "Dead Souls", "The Inspector General", and others, began the "Gogol period" of Russian literature of the 30-40s. “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat,” F.M. Dostoevsky.

The realistic world of the Russian merchant class was shown to the reader in his first drama "Our people - let's get along" by Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky, who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained rich life experience related to the life and customs of the Russian merchant class.

In the 40-50s. The central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the serf village, its customs and mores. A literary event was the publication of Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter, who described not only the nature of the Central Russian zone, but also the serfs, to whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.

The hopeless poverty and downtroddenness of the serf were depicted in the stories of Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich "The Village" and "Anton-Goremyk". As one of his contemporaries wrote, "not a single educated person of that time ... could read without tears about the misfortunes of Anton and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom."

The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of the modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the heavy written speech of the previous century.

Theater

In the Russian theater, the change of artistic trends took place as quickly as in literature.

At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent antique and mythological plots, external splendor.

In the 20-30s. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experience of the characters. Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in F. Schiller's drama "Deceit and Love"), became the largest representative of romanticism in the Russian theater. His game was distinguished by violent emotionality, and his heroes were distinguished by a selfless struggle for freedom and justice.

In the 40s. a new page begins in the history of the Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In dramaturgy, it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting art. Shchepkin was the first to suggest subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin in the Maly Theater became the biggest social event in the life of Moscow.

Another remarkable actor of the stage realism school was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. With great skill he conveyed the experiences and everyday life of the "little man" of his time.

An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the previously unified Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet productions) and the Maly (drama). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theatre, which differed from the more democratic Maly Theater in its official character.

Music

Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic 1812. If earlier everyday opera prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic plots of Russia's historical past. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".

The entire first half of the 19th century was marked by the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motifs sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamova, A.A. Alyabeva, A.L. Gurilev.

The romantic direction in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. “The people create music,” he said, and we, the artists, only arrange it.

Glinka managed to establish in Russian music not only folk, but also realistic traditions. He became the ancestor of the main genres of domestic professional music. The most vivid idea of ​​the composer's work is given by his opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin). In it, Glinka glorified a simple patriotic peasant and at the same time the courage, steadfastness and greatness of the character of the entire Russian people.

The development of the national theme in music was continued by another Russian composer, Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Mermaid" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.

Painting

During this period, there is a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological plots, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. There is a growing interest of artists in the personality of a person, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people.

The largest figure of classicism in Russian painting was Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - "The Last Day of Pompeii" - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of an ordinary person in a natural disaster. In this work, Bryullov marked the desire for realism. It manifested itself in all his paintings: “Self-portrait”, “Horsewoman”, etc.

Remarkable portrait painters Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin became prominent representatives of romanticism in painting. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S., remarkable in their expressiveness. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (President of the Academy of Arts). In them, he showed the sublime beginning, the inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. A distinctive feature of Tropinin's work was showing a person in his surroundings, doing what he loves. Such are his genre portraits "Lacemaker", "Guitarist", "Golden stitcher", etc. Tropinin is also famous for the fact that he became the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.

One of the greatest masters of Russian painting was Alexander Andreevich Ivanov. The main work of his life was the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of ​​the picture is confidence in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the set depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of education. Words that can show people the way to a better future.

The founder of critical realism in Russian painting was Pavel Andreevich Fedotov. In his genre paintings, he was able to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: "The Fresh Cavalier" and "Major's Matchmaking", in which the drama of situations is visible, the critical position of the author in relation to reality.

The birth of the everyday genre, popular in the 19th century, is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings have become a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of the peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On the arable land. Spring”, “In the harvest. Summer”, “Zakharka”, in the portrait gallery of the peasants, he depicted their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of his native nature. This direction of painting is commonly called the "Venetian school".

I.K. worked in the seascape genre. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with a surprisingly picturesque image of the sea element. The painting “The Ninth Wave” gained particular fame, which is a vivid example of the master’s unsurpassed professionalism and testifies to the romantic warehouse of his work during this period.

The center of the artistic life of Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in 1832 in Moscow.

Architecture

In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creativity. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its pinnacle at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, austerity of lines inherited from imperial Rome. An important element of the Empire was also sculptures that complemented the architectural design of buildings. Palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, meetings of the nobility, government offices, theaters and even temples were built in the Empire style.

The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures, united into a single whole. It was then that Palace, Admiralty and Senate squares were formed in St. Petersburg, and Teatralnaya in Moscow.

The largest representatives of the Russian Empire were Andrey Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the building of the Admiralty in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.

Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, who created the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.

In Moscow, in the Empire style, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were made: Red Square reconstructed after the fire of 1812, Theater Square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gates, etc.

The architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigoryevich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored the public buildings of Moscow destroyed by fire in 1812: the Sloboda Palace, the Catherine Institute, Moscow University.

With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. the "Russian-Byzantine" style begins to spread. The architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory, the Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) railway station, etc. in this style.

The largest Orthodox church in St. Petersburg was St. Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferan, under the personal control of Emperor Nicholas I.

Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral

The interior of St. Isaac's Cathedral

Sculpture

The development of sculpture was closely linked with the development of architecture. Especially a lot of works, organically inscribed in architectural ensembles, were created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: a bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps on the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Pyotr Karlovich Klodt: "Horse Tamer" on the Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I installed on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos creates a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.

Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments Moscow. It is located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of the people's heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody in it the high ideals of civic prowess and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing to Moscow, hands Prince Pozharsky an old sword and urges him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on a shield, the wounded governor rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of national consciousness at a difficult time for the Fatherland.

The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: the rapid change of artistic styles and trends, the mutual enrichment and close interconnection of literature and other areas of art, the strengthening of the public sound of the created works, the organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, led to an increase in its influence on the life of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.

Second half of the 19th century

Education

The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of the awareness by society and the state of the need for broad education of the people. The educational reform carried out in 1864 expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:

1) zemstvo schools created by the forces of zemstvos

2) church schools

3) public schools of the Ministry of public education

According to the reform, secondary educational institutions were divided into two types:

- classical gymnasiums- in them the main emphasis was placed on the study of subjects of the humanities cycle, graduates of gymnasiums could enter universities without exams;

Real schools - differed from gymnasiums in greater attention to the natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry, real schools prepared for admission to technical higher educational institutions.

Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10,000 zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parochial schools, but the state did not have enough money to maintain them. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type of elementary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. main type high school were high schools. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia; a quarter of a century later, the number of gymnasiums tripled. about 300 women's gymnasiums were opened.

There were also advances in higher education. New universities opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into effect, expanding the rights of universities to self-govern.

There were special higher educational institutions - Medical and Surgical Academy, Technological, Mining, Communications, Electrotechnical Universities, Petrovsky Agricultural Academy. There was a formation of higher education for women. By the end of the 19th century, there were more than 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.

However, in general, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census, the average literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. A little more than 1% of the population had a higher education, 4% had an average education.

Scientific discoveries

Mathematics and physics
Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev - mathematician and physicist	Designed a walking machine. Imitating the movement of an animal when walking, as well as an automatic calculating machine - adding machine.
Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov - physicist	By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the approval of the electromagnetic theory of light
Alexander Stepanovich Popov - physicist	He made a receiver-transmitter, after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For his discovery, he was awarded the Grand Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900.
Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist	Created an arc light bulb, which soon lit up the streets and houses of many cities around the world
Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky	Designed the world's first aircraft
Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov	Invented caterpillar tractor
Chemistry, biology
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist	Discovered the periodic law of the elements
Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov, chemist	Laid the foundations of organic chemistry
Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev - soil scientist	Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal, in his book he outlined a plan to combat the drought that hit the black earth belt of Russia by planting windbreaks.
Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist	He created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, thereby carrying out a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically prove the unity and mutual conditioning of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing but the result of the work of the brain.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist	He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which marked the beginning of modern ideas about the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and latest form of adaptation of the organism to environment. If the unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the organism, inherent in all representatives of this species, then the conditioned reflex is a new acquisition of the organism, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience.
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists	They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods for fighting rabies, and paid great attention to the fight against pests of agricultural plants.
Geography
Academician, Admiral Fyodor Petrovich Litke - geographer	Explored Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer	He made major geological and zoological surveys of Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: a wild horse, a wild camel, a Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand copies, 218 new plant species were discovered
Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay - geographer	He devoted his life to the study of the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. For two and a half years he lived on the northeast coast of New Guinea. Won the love and trust of its inhabitants. He visited the southwestern coast of this island, the southeastern coast, made two difficult journeys to the hinterland of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station.
Humanitarian sciences
Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov	Created a 29-volume "History of Russia from ancient times." A major scientific and social phenomenon was his "Public Readings on Peter the Great", timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical method of research, pointing out the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe.
Solovyov's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky	Brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation "Boyar Duma" at Moscow University. Ancient Rus'". He was the author of the "Course of Russian History", which he read at Moscow University.

Domestic science of the second half of the 19th century reached the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom, they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.

Literature

The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life based on its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by the spirit of accusation, a close interest in the life of the common man, the desire to find ways and means of combating the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time terrible in the works of the satirist: “Provincial Essays”, “History of a City”, “Lord Golovlev”, “Pompadours and Pompadourses”. The artistic technique used by the writer is the grotesque. In his works, he brings to the extreme all the existing vices and weaknesses. The writer knows no mercy either for officials, or for representatives of high society, for merchants, or for the emerging bourgeoisie.

Fanatical people these scientists, researchers. How do you read what you had to go through and experience in distant geographical expeditions, that you wonder - why did they need it? Part of the answer probably still applies to these people themselves, like Fyodor Konyukhov - it's in their blood. And the other part, of course, is serving the Motherland, the Fatherland, the country. I think they fully understood that they were increasing the greatness, wealth and prosperity of their state. If not for them, a citizen of another country would have done this and the maps of the World might have looked different.

Here are some things you might not know...

The 18th century was marked in Russian geographical history primarily by the Great Northern Expedition. Started in December 1724 on the personal decree of Peter I (the First Kamchatka expedition of Vitus Bering), it continued in 1733-1743, already under Anna Ioannovna. The expedition consisted of seven independent missions moving along the Arctic coast of Siberia to the shores of North America and Japan. The result of this large-scale project was the publication of the first complete geographical map Russian Empire.

Vasily Pronchishchev. Great Northern Expedition. 1735-1736

One of the members of the Great Northern Expedition. A legendary personality among Russian polar explorers. Legendary and romantic. Midshipman. He studied at the Naval Academy together with Semyon Chelyuskin and Khariton Laptev, who also participated in this expedition under him. And earlier, in 1722, he took part in the Persian campaign of Peter. And outwardly, by the way, he was very similar to the emperor.

Together with him, his wife Tatyana took part in the expedition. For that time, it was so incredible that her presence on the ship was unofficial

During the Great Northern Expedition, Pronchishchev’s detachment, consisting of 50 people, leaving Yakutsk in June 1735 on the Yakutsk sailing and rowing boat, made an accurate map of the channel and mouth of the Lena River, a map of the coast of the Laptev Sea and discovered many islands lying north of the Taimyr Peninsula. In addition, the Pronchishchev group moved north much further than other detachments: up to 77 ° 29 ′ N. sh.

But Pronchishchev entered the history of the development of the Arctic also thanks to a romantic story. Together with him, his wife Tatyana took part in the expedition. For that time, it was so incredible that her presence on the ship was unofficial. In August 1736, during one of his sorties to the polar islands, Pronchishchev broke his leg and soon died from a complication caused by an open fracture. His wife survived him by only a few days. It is said that she died of grief. They were buried in one grave on Cape Tumul near the mouth of the Olenyok River (today the village of Ust-Olenyok is located here).

Navigator Semyon Chelyuskin became the new head of the detachment, and after he went with a sledge train to Yakutsk with expedition reports, he was replaced by Khariton Laptev. Surprisingly, the names of Chelyuskin and Laptev were much more clearly reflected in the public consciousness than the name of their commander Pronchishchev. True, in the spring of 2018, the film "The First" will be released, which tells about the fate of the Pronchishchev spouses. The role of Vasily will be played by Evgeny Tkachuk (Grigory Melekhov in The Quiet Don and Mishka Yaponchik in the series of the same name). Perhaps the name of Pronchishchev will still take its rightful place among other great explorers of the Arctic.

Fedor Soymonov. Map of the Caspian Sea. 1731

This man's life is begging for a movie screen. He, like Pronchishchev, participated in the Persian campaign of Peter I. He was also a midshipman. But his fate connected him not with the Arctic, but with the Caspian. Fedor Soymonov entered the history of Russia as the first Russian hydrographer.

Strange as it may seem, but along and across the Caspian Sea familiar to us today in the 18th century was still a continuous terra incognita. Yes, since ancient times, dashing Volga people - ushkuiniki - went to Persia for princesses to throw them overboard into the oncoming wave, and of other other goods. It was called "going for zipuns." But it was all self-indulgence. Fyodor Soymonov was the first to map the Caspian Sea with all its bays, shoals and peninsulas on the map of the Russian Empire.

In Nerchinsk and Irkutsk, Soymonov organized the first navigational schools in Siberia, in which he personally taught. Then for six years he was the governor of Siberia

Also, under his leadership, the first detailed atlas of the Baltic Sea was published and the atlas of the White Sea was prepared for publication, but here the strange begins. Of course, this was due to undercover political games. In 1740, Soimonov was stripped of all ranks, flogged with a whip (!) and exiled to hard labor. Two years later, Elizabeth I returned him to the service, but left him in Siberia. In Nerchinsk and Irkutsk, Soymonov organized the first navigational schools in Siberia, in which he personally taught. Then for six years he was the governor of Siberia. At the age of 70, he was finally allowed to return to Moscow. He died at the age of 88 on his estate near Serpukhov.

Interesting fact. Soymonovsky proezd in Moscow, not far from the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, is named after Soimonov's son, Mikhail, a remarkable person in his way, one of the organizers of mining in Russia.

Savva Loshkin. New Earth. Mid 18th century

G. A. Travnikov. Russian North

If our previous two heroes were sovereign people and made their travels on duty, then the Pomor Savva Loshkin, a native of the village of Olonets, acted only at his own peril and risk. He was the first person in the history of the development of the Russian North, who bypassed Novaya Zemlya from the north.

Loshkin is an almost mythological person, but any self-respecting northern sailor knows his name, despite the fact that the only official source telling about his three-year journey is the story of Fedot Rakhmanin, recorded in 1788 by Vasily Krestinin, corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Even the years of Savva Loshkin's travel are not exactly known to us. Some researchers believe that this is the beginning of the 1760s, others - that the 1740s

Nikolay Chelobitchikov. Malacca, Canton. 1760-1768.

While some mastered the North, others moved south. Merchant Nikolai Chelobitchikov from the city of Trubchevsk in the Oryol province in 1760-1768 made a completely unique journey through Southeast Asia, which, alas, remained unappreciated by his contemporaries. Most likely, he was the first Russian who visited the Malay Peninsula and reached by sea, and not by land, the Chinese Canton (now Guangzhou)

The merchant Chelobitchikov made his journey with a completely practical purpose and, it seems, did not attach any historical significance to it. He contracted for 300 rubles. go to Calcutta and collect a four thousandth debt from a Greek merchant stuck there

The merchant Chelobitchikov (although it would be more correct to call him a collector) made his journey for a completely practical purpose and, it seems, did not attach any historical significance to it. He contracted for 300 rubles. to go to Calcutta and collect a debt of four thousand from a Greek merchant stuck there, who owed this amount to his fellow countrymen. Passing through Constantinople, Baghdad and the Indian Ocean, he reached Calcutta. But it turned out that the debtor had already died, and Chelobitchikov had to return to his homeland in an incredibly roundabout way: through Malacca, which at that time was owned by the Dutch, the Chinese Canton and the English island of St. Helena (!) To London, and then to Lisbon and Paris. And, finally, to St. Petersburg, where I visited for the first time in my life.

This amazing journey of the Trubchev merchant became known relatively recently, when a petition was found in the Central State Archive, which he sent in 1770 to Catherine II, with a request to transfer him to the St. Petersburg merchant class. In it, he described his route in sufficient detail. Surprisingly, his report is absolutely devoid of any pathos. He describes his nine-year journey rather sparingly, as some kind of country walk. And he offers himself as a consultant on trade with Eastern countries.

Philip Efremov. Bukhara - Tibet - Kashmir - India. 1774-1782

The further fate of Chelobitchikov remains unclear (most likely, his message never reached the Empress), but the serviceman, non-commissioned officer Philip Efremov, who made a similar journey a decade later, was introduced to Catherine II and even elevated to her noble dignity.

The adventures of Philip Efremov began in July 1774, when he was taken prisoner by the Pugachevites. Fled, but was captured by the Kirghiz, who sold him into slavery to the Emir of Bukhara

The adventures of Philip Efremov began in July 1774, when he was taken prisoner by the Pugachevites. He fled, but was captured by the Kirghiz, who sold him into slavery to the Emir of Bukhara. Efremov was forced to convert to Islam and subjected to the most severe tortures, but he did not betray the Christian faith, and then the emir, admiring his courage, made him his centurion (yuz-bashi). For participation in several battles, he received a large allotment of land, but still dreamed of returning to his homeland. Having bought a fake passport, he fled again. All roads to the north were blocked, so he went south. Through Tibet and Kashmir, closed to Europeans, he ended up in India, and from there to London, where he met with the Russian consul, who introduced him directly to Catherine's eyes.

Later, Efremov served as a translator in the Asian Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in 1786 the first edition of his travel diary was published: “Russian non-commissioned officer Efremov, now a collegiate assessor, a nine-year wandering and adventure in Bukhara, Khiva, Persia and India and returning from there through England to Russia, written by himself. At the end of the 18th century, the book became a bestseller and went through three editions, but by the middle of the 19th century it was almost forgotten, like its author. Now the notebook, which has passed half the world with Efremov, is kept in the manuscript department of the Pushkin House.

P.S. Soon many other travelers followed in the footsteps of Chelobitchikov and Efremov. The most famous of them are Gerasim Lebedev, the first Russian Indologist who founded India's first European-style drama theater in Calcutta in the 1790s, the Armenian merchants Grigory and Danil Atanasov, and the Georgian nobleman Rafail Danibegashvili.

Dmitry Rzhannikov

sources
https://www.moya-planeta.ru/travel/view/zabytye_russkie_puteshestvenniki_xviii_veka_36544/

And let's remember and, well, a little

Moscow Automobile and Highway State Technical University

By discipline: Culturology

Russians travelers XIX century

Made by Evstifeeva Anna

student of group 1bmo2

Checked Shorkova S.A.

Moscow 2013

Introduction

Chapter 1. Travelers of the first half of the 19th century

1 I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky

2 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev.

3 A.A. Baranov

Chapter 2. Travelers of the second half of the 19th century

1 G.I. Nevelskoy and E.V. Putyatin

2 N.M. Przhevalsky

3 N.N. Miklukho Maclay

Conclusion

Introduction

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched the ideas of Russians about the world around them, contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time realized an old dream: its ships entered the oceans.

Chapter 1. Travelers of the first half of the 19th century

.1 I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky

In 1803, at the direction of Alexander I, an expedition was undertaken on the ships Nadezhda and Neva to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. It was the first Russian round-the-world expedition that lasted 3 years. It was headed by Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern, the largest navigator and geographer of the 19th century.

During the voyage, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped for the first time. Many interesting observations were left by the participants of the trip not only about the Far East, but also about other areas through which they sailed. The commander of the Neva, Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky, discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans.

The results of the observations were presented in the report of the Academy of Sciences. They turned out to be so significant that I.F. Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis of the book published in the early 1920s. "Atlas of the South Seas". In 1845, Admiral Krusenstern became one of the founding members of the Russian Geographical Society. He brought up a whole galaxy of Russian navigators and explorers.

1.2 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev.

One of the students and followers of Kruzenshtern was Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen. He was a member of the first Russian round-the-world expedition.

In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on the sloops (single-masted ships) Vostok (which he commanded) and Mirny (commander Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev). The expedition plan was made by Kruzenshtern. Its main goal was "the acquisition of complete knowledge about our globe" and "the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole."

On January 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called "the ice continent." After stopping in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands.

For 751 days of navigation, Russian sailors covered about 50 thousand km. The most important geographical discoveries were made, valuable collections, observational data on the waters of the World Ocean and ice sheets of a continent new to mankind were brought.

1.3 A.A. Baranov

Alexander Andreevich Baranov can hardly be attributed to the discoverers or travelers in the strict sense of these words. But he was a man who made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian America by our compatriots. As a Kargopol merchant, he traded in Eastern Siberia, and since 1790 - in Northwest America.

In search of new hunting areas, Baranov studied Kodiak Island and other territories in detail, searched for minerals, founded new Russian settlements and supplied them with everything necessary, and established exchanges with local residents. It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia.

Baranov's activities were extremely difficult and dangerous. The constant raids of the Indians cost the Russian settlers not only a lot of money, but also their lives. In 1802 alone, more than 200 settlers were killed while trying to create a settlement on the island of Sitka.

Baranov's efforts were so successful that in 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of the Russian colonies in America. This high and dangerous post he held almost until his death.

In 1804, Baranov founded the Novoarkhangelsk fortress on the island of Sitka, and then Fort Ross. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to Hawaiian Islands with a view to their accession to Russia. However, she did not bring good luck. Being already an elderly and sick man, Alexander Andreevich asked for his resignation three times. However, they were in no hurry to let such a person leave the service.

geographic Russian round-the-world expedition

Chapter 2. Travelers of the second half of the 19th century

The largest researcher of the Russian Far East in the middle of the XIX century. was Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky.

In two expeditions (1848-1849 and 1850-1855), he managed, bypassing Sakhalin from the north, to discover a number of new, previously unknown territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. Here in 1850 he founded the Nikolaevsky post (Nikolaevsk-on-Amur). Nevelsky's travels were of great importance: for the first time it was proved that Sakhalin was not connected to the mainland at all, but was an island and the Tatar Strait was a strait, not a bay, as it was thought.

Evfimy Vasilyevich Putyatin in 1822-1825 traveled around the world and left a description of what he saw to posterity. In 1852-1855. during the expedition led by him on the frigate "Pallada" the islands of Rimsky-Korsakov were discovered. Putyatin became the first Russian who managed to visit Japan, which was closed to Europeans, and even signed an agreement there (1855).

The result of the expeditions of Nevelsky and Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.

The most important among these institutions was the Russian Geographical Society, opened in 1845. It has become the center of geographical knowledge in Russia.

2.2 N.M. Przhevalsky

Przhevalsky dreamed of wanderings from an early age and stubbornly prepared for them. But the Crimean War broke out - he went as a private in the army. And then years of study at the Academy of the General Staff. However, a military career did not attract him at all. Staying at the Academy was marked for Przhevalsky only by compiling Military Statistical Review of the Amur Territory .

However, this work allowed him to become a member of the Geographical Society.

In early 1867, Przhevalsky submitted to the Society a plan for a major and risky expedition to Central Asia. However, the audacity of the young officer seemed excessive, and the matter was limited to his business trip to the Ussuri Territory with permission carry out any scientific research . But Przhevalsky met this decision with enthusiasm.

In this first trip, Przhevalsky compiled the most complete description of the Ussuri region and gained valuable expeditionary experience. Now they believed in him: there were no obstacles for traveling to Mongolia and the country of the Tanguts - Northern Tibet, which he dreamed about.

During the four years of the expedition (1870-1873), significant amendments were made to the geographical map.

In 1876, he again sets a course for Tibet. Przhevalsky was the first European to reach the mysterious Lobnor Lake, discover the previously unknown Altyndag Range and determine the exact border of the Tibetan Plateau, establishing that it begins 300 km north of what was previously thought. But this time he failed to penetrate deep into this country, almost unknown to Europeans.

And yet, three years later, the Russian explorer reached the coveted highlands. The absolute lack of exploration of this area attracted Przhevalsky, who sent here in the early 1880s. your expedition. It was his most fruitful journey, crowned with many discoveries. True, Przhevalsky did not succeed in discovering the source of the Huang He (it was found only quite recently), however, the Russian expedition studied in detail the watershed between the Yellow River - the Yellow River and the largest Blue River in China and Eurasia - the Yangtze. Previously unknown ridges were plotted on the map. Przhevalsky gave them names: Columbus Ridge, Moscow Ridge, Russian Ridge. He called one of the peaks of the latter the Kremlin. Subsequently, in this mountain system a ridge appeared that immortalized the name of Przhevalsky himself.

In the course of all his expeditions, Przhevalsky, being a professional geographer, made discoveries that could bring fame to any zoologist or botanist. He described a wild horse (Przewalski's horse), a wild camel and a Tibetan bear, several new species of birds, fish and reptiles, hundreds of species of plants.

And he was on his way again. Tibet again beckoned him to itself. This time, Przhevalsky firmly decided to visit Lhasa.

But all plans collapsed. He was dying in his tent, barely starting the journey. Before his death, he asked his companions to bury him by all means on the shore of Issyk-Kul, in a marching expedition uniform ... .

November 1888 Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky died. His last request was granted.

2.3 N.N. Miklukho Maclay

Every culture, every tribe or people, every human being has the right to self-sufficiency. Interacting, communicating, they should proceed from mutual respect, not seeking to force their own rules, their way of life and not imposing their thoughts.

These principles were close and understandable to Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay, who was brought up in an intelligent Russian family during the heyday of Russian culture, primarily literature, permeated with the ideas of freedom, humanism, goodness and the search for truth. Having studied biology and medicine in Germany, having made several scientific expeditions (he was an assistant to the famous biologist and ecologist E. Haeckel), he returned to Russia and then decided to go to New Guinea. K.M. Baer recommended that he observe people "without prejudice as to the number and distribution of human tribes and races"

Until the middle of the XIX century. New Guinea remained aloof from the economic interests of the European industrial powers. Perhaps it was influenced by the fact that no deposits of precious metals were found on it. It is also possible that the reason for this is the rumors about the local cannibal savages. In addition, lush tropical vegetation prevented the development of these territories. A more or less thorough study of New Guinea began in 1871-1872: Italian scientists Luigi Albertis and Odoardo Beccari explored the northwestern part of the island.

Miklouho-Maclay had to hurry to catch at least some of the Papuan tribes in their natural state. Therefore, he chose the practically unexplored southeastern coast of New Guinea, landed there in September 1871 and lived among the "savages" for more than a year, communicating with them, winning their respect and trust.

The first stay on the banks of Maclay.

On September 1871, the Vityaz anchored about 140 meters from the shore. Soon the Papuans appeared; Miklukho-Maclay, refusing to guard, with Ohlson and Boy landed on the shore and visited the village, the entire population of which fled into the jungle. The most daring was a Papuan named Tui (in the pronunciation recorded by D.D. Tumarkin in 1977 - Toya). It is Tui who will become the main intermediary of Miklouho-Maclay with the inhabitants of the coastal villages.

Nazimov warned that he would be able to stand for no more than a week, so Miklukho-Maclay, with the help of Tui, found Garagassi cape, where a hut for a scientist was built (size 7 ×14 feet), and in a hut belonging to Tui, they set up a cookery. At the insistence of the commander of the "Vityaz", site 70 ×70 m was mined; information about whether Miklukho-Maclay used mines contradicts each other and is unverifiable. Of the products, Nikolai Nikolayevich had two pounds of rice, Chilean beans, dried meat and a can of edible fat. Nazimov forced Miklukho-Maclay to take the team's daily allowance - that is, a daily supply of food for 300 people, but Nikolai Nikolayevich refused to take the supply free of charge. September 27 "Vityaz" left the bay.

The first month in New Guinea was quite tense. Miklukho-Maclay came to the conclusion that his visits disturbed the islanders too much and limited himself only to contacts with the natives who visited him at Cape Garagassi. Since he did not know the language and customs well, at first he limited himself to meteorological and zoobotanical research. Already on October 11, he was overwhelmed by the first attack of fever, and repeated attacks continued during the entire stay of the scientist in the Astrolabe Bay. The servants were constantly ill, especially Boy, who Miklouho-Maclay diagnosed with a "swelling of the lymphatic glands in the groin." The operation did not help, on December 13 the boy died. Miklouho-Maclay at the same time remembered the promise given to Professor Gegenbaur to obtain a preparation of the larynx of a black man with a tongue and all the muscles, which he prepared, despite the danger of the situation.

By January 1872, Miklouho-Maclay's authority among the local population had grown, and on January 11 he received an invitation to the village of Bongu for the first time. There was an exchange of gifts, but the wives and children of the New Guineans were still hidden from the scientist. In February 1872, Nikolai Nikolaevich managed to heal Tui from a serious wound (a tree fell on him, the wound on his head festered), after which the scientist was received in the village, Tui introduced him to his wife and children; the opinion of the European as an evil spirit was significantly shaken. The symbolic inclusion of the ethnographer in the local society took place on March 2 at a night ceremony, in which the men of three related villages - Gumbu, Gorendu and Bongu participated. An artistic description of the ceremony was left by Miklouho-Maclay himself in his diary. After that, the scientist could safely make long-distance excursions along the coast and even into the mountains. The language barrier created the greatest difficulty: by the end of his first stay in New Guinea, the scientist spoke about 350 words of the local Bongu language, and at least 15 languages ​​were spoken in the vicinity.

The explored territories, the shores of the Astrolabe Bay and part of the coast east of it to Cape Huon, Miklouho-Maclay called his name - "Miklouho-Maclay Coast", defining its geographical boundaries as follows: from Cape Croazil in the west to Cape King William in the east, from the seashore in the northeast to the highest mountain range of Mana Boro-Boro in the southwest.

Conclusion

World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

Bibliography

1.Danilov A.A. History of Russia, XIX century. Grade 8: textbook. for general education institutions / A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulin. - 10th ed. - M.: Enlightenment, 2009. - 287 p., L. ill., maps.

2.Zezina M.R. Koshman L.V. Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. - M., 1990

Thanks to them, Russian names appeared on the map of the Pacific Ocean, Persia was studied, and Ethiopia remained an independent country - one of the few in Africa at that time ...

We continue to publish stories about Russian pioneers who did a lot for the world, but were undeservedly forgotten by contemporaries and descendants. The first part is , the second part is . In the 19th century, travel, even around the world, became relatively comfortable, but there were still many blank spots on the world map, and our heroes, each in their own way, expanded its geographical boundaries.

Otto Kotzebue. 399 islands in the Pacific Ocean. 1815-1818

During his life, Otto Kotzebue made three circumnavigations of the world. The first is at the age of 15. As a cabin boy, he participated in the first Russian circumnavigation (1803-1806) on the Nadezhda sloop under the command of Krusenstern. The third - in the years 1823-1826 as the captain of the sloop "Enterprise".

Once, when Pashino noticed that he was suspected, he changed clothes with his servant-guide and remained in one turban and loincloth. Yes, and smeared with donkey droppings to give his skin a dark color

But the most significant in his biography was the command of the brig "Rurik", which made a round-the-world trip in 1815-1818. The purpose of this expedition was to find the northern passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. During a storm off Cape Horn, Kotzebue was almost washed overboard. He miraculously managed to grab onto the tight rope. And during a storm in the Pacific Ocean, the ship's bowsprit was broken, which crippled several sailors and Kotzebue himself. Because of this, the ultimate goal of the expedition was not achieved. But her results were still brilliant. It was thanks to Kotzebue that Russian names appeared on the map of the Pacific Ocean: the atolls of Rumyantsev, Kruzenshtern, Kutuzov, Suvorov and many others.

Egor Kovalevsky. Heroic adventures in Montenegro, Central Asia and China, discoveries in Central Africa. Mid 19th century

Yegor Kovalevsky is a figure, although not known to the general public, but professional geographers and travelers, of course, are well aware of him and his merits to science. To even briefly mention all his adventures, you need several pages of such a text.

He was a participant in the defense of Sevastopol, fought illegally on the side of the Serbs against the Austrians in Montenegro, opened a new route to China, visited Kashmir and Afghanistan, was captured during the Khiva campaign of the Russian army, fled and for several weeks with a handful of soldiers defended himself in a small fortress from pursuers ... He mined gold in Africa, the first European to reach moon mountains- Rwenzori (on the territory of modern Uganda), crossed the Nubian desert, discovered the left tributary of the Nile, the Abudom River and indicated where to look for the source of the White Nile ... "We penetrate further than others into Africa," he wrote in his diary.

Kovalevsky was a talented writer, wrote both poetry and prose, but he went down in history as the author of four books about his adventures.

All of Russia read his books, and at the official level he was also highly appreciated. In 1856, Kovalevsky became an assistant to the chairman of the Imperial Geographical Society, as well as an honorary member of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

Alexander Kashevarov. He was the first to describe the northern coast of Alaska. 1838

Already the birthplace of Alexander Kashevarov makes the heart of any traveler tremble. After all, he was born in Alaska! In 1810, when she was still Russian. After studying at the Kronstadt Navigation School, he made two round-the-world trips as a navigator, and then returned to his small homeland and, at the head of a small group of sailors, made one of the most amazing voyages in the history of the development of the North. On leather Aleutian kayaks sewn with whalebone, travelers passed through the floating ice along north coast Alaska from Cape Lisbourne to Cape Wrangel, discovered by them, putting on the map of Alaska Prokofiev and Kupriyanov bays, the Menshikov coast and Cape Stepovoy.

Pyotr Pashino. The first of the Europeans penetrated into remote areas of India and Afghanistan. 1873-1876

The 25-year-old journalist Pyotr Pashino made his first trip to Persia in 1861 as secretary of the Russian embassy. But paperwork soon bored him, he took an indefinite leave and went to independent travel in Persia, and then in Central Asia.

In the years 1873-1876 he made two trips alone to India, Burma and Afghanistan. Usually Pashino traveled in Arab or Indian clothes, with a shaved head, pretending to be a Turkish doctor, a wandering dervish, and sometimes a beggar tramp. He was fluent in many oriental languages. This allowed him to visit places where a non-Muslim was forbidden to enter on pain of death. But despite all the precautions and tricks, he more than once found himself on the verge of exposure and death. Once, when Pashino noticed that he was suspected, he changed clothes with his servant-guide and remained in one turban and loincloth. Moreover, he smeared himself with donkey droppings to give his skin a dark color. And when one day, in the clothes of a dervish, he went into a first-class buffet to drink tea, he was almost beaten half to death by a policeman.

Returning to St. Petersburg, Pyotr Pashino described his adventures in numerous essays and feuilletons. They were later collected into books.

Pashino also made a round-the-world trip, but it was quite civilized and comfortable, so it was not of particular scientific value.

Alexander Bulatovich. African pioneer, explorer of Ethiopia. 1896-1899

In 1896, the 26-year-old cornet of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment, Alexander Bulatovich, was included in the Russian Red Cross mission to Ethiopia, where he became a military adviser to Emperor Menelik II. With his help, the emperor reorganized his army to resist the European colonialists. As a result, Ethiopia became one of the few African countries that retained their independence.

With the permission of the emperor, Bulatovich made several trips to the interior of this country, where none of the Europeans had previously been. Accompanied by only three companions, he made a camel crossing through the Danakil desert, which was teeming with robbers, then became the first white man to cross the remote province of Ethiopia, the legendary Kaffa, from where the best coffee was delivered to Europe. He put the valley of the Baro River on the map of the world, discovered the mountain range named after Nicholas II, which was later renamed at the request of the Soviet Union.

Bulatovich became a military adviser to Emperor Menelik II. With his help, the emperor reorganized his army to resist the European colonialists. As a result, Ethiopia became one of the few African countries that retained their independence.

Detailed reports on these expeditions were published in St. Petersburg: “From Entoto to the Baro River. Travel reports in the South-Western region of the Ethiopian Empire "(1897) and" Diary of a campaign from Ethiopia to Lake Rudolf "(1900), in which he described not only his geographical discoveries, but also Ethiopian culture and faith, close to Orthodox, laws , customs, the structure of the army and the state, made a detailed outline of the history of Ethiopia. Bulatovich received a silver medal from the Russian Geographical Society for his research. His books inspired many new African explorers, in particular the poet Nikolai Gumilyov, to embark on expeditions. Already in our time, Bulatovich's adventures were described by Valentin Pikul in the story "Hussar on a Camel".

In 1906, Bulatovich retired, went to the Athos Monastery in Greece and became a monk, but during the First World War he returned to the army as a regimental priest. He was in Austrian captivity, escaped ... In 1919 he was killed by robbers in his estate near Sumy.

Russian pioneers and travelers of the 19th century made a number of outstanding discoveries, which became the property of not only Russian, but also foreign, world science. In addition, they made a significant contribution to the development of domestic knowledge and did a lot to promote the training of new personnel for the development of marine research.

Prerequisites

Russian pioneers and travelers of the 19th century made their discoveries largely because this century saw the need to look for new trade routes and opportunities to support Russia's ties with other countries. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, our country finally strengthened its status in the international arena as a world power. Naturally, this new position expanded its geopolitical space, which required new exploration of the seas, islands and ocean coasts for the construction of ports, ships and the development of trade with foreign countries.

The Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century took place as talented navigators just at the very time when our country achieved access to two seas: the Baltic and the Black. And it is no coincidence. This opened up new prospects for maritime research and gave impetus to the construction and development of fleets, maritime affairs in general. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the first decades of the century under consideration, Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out a number of outstanding studies that significantly enriched Russian geographical science.

World expedition plan

Such a project became possible largely due to the successful military operations of our country at the end of the 18th century. At this time, Russia got the opportunity to build its own fleet on the Black Sea, which, of course, should have stimulated maritime affairs. Russian navigators at that time seriously thought about laying convenient trade routes. This was further facilitated by the fact that our country owned Alaska in North America. It was also necessary to maintain constant contacts with her and develop economic cooperation.

I.F. Kruzenshtern at the end of the 18th century presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. However, then he was rejected. But just a few years later, after the accession of Alexander I, the Russian government showed interest in the presented plan. He got approved.

Preparation

I.F. Kruzenshtern came from a noble family. He studied at the Kronstadt Naval Corps and, being his student, took part in the war against Sweden, having proven himself well then. After that, he was sent for an internship in England, where he received an excellent education. Upon his return to Russia, he presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. Having received approval, he carefully prepared for it, purchased the best instruments and equipped the ships.

His closest assistant in this matter was his comrade Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. He became friends with him back in the cadet corps. The friend also proved himself to be a talented naval officer during the Russian-Swedish war of 1788-1790. Soon, two ships were equipped under the names "Neva" and "Nadezhda". The latter was led by Count Nikolai Rezanov, who became famous thanks to the famous rock opera. The expedition set sail in 1803. Its goal was to explore and explore the possibility of opening new trade routes from Russia to China and the coast of North American territory.

Swimming

Russian navigators rounded Cape Horn and, leaving Pacific Ocean, divided. Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky led his ship to the North American shores, where he recaptured the Russian trading city of Novo-Arkhangelsk, captured by the Indians. During this trip, he also spent the first time in the history of navigation sailing ship around South Africa.

The ship "Nadezhda" under the leadership of Kruzenshtern went to the Sea of ​​Japan. The merit of this explorer is that he carefully explored the shores of Sakhalin Island and made significant changes to the map. The main thing was to explore what the leadership of the Pacific Fleet had long been interested in. Kruzenshtern entered the Amur Estuary, after which, having explored the shores of Kamchatka, he returned to his homeland.

Kruzenshtern's contribution to science

Travelers of Russia have significantly advanced Russian geographical science, bringing it to the world level of development. attracted the attention of the general public. After the end of the trip, both wrote books that outlined the results of their research. Krusenstern published Journey Around the World, but the atlas he published with hydrographic applications is of particular importance. He filled in many blank spots on the map, carried out valuable studies of the seas and oceans. So, he studied the pressure and temperature of the water, sea currents, ebbs and flows.

Social activity

His further career was closely connected with the naval corps, where he was first assigned as an inspector. Subsequently, he began to teach there, and then generally headed it. On his initiative, the Higher Officer Classes were created. Later they were transformed into the Naval Academy. Kruzenshtern introduced new disciplines into the educational process. This has significantly increased the quality level of teaching maritime affairs.

In addition, he helped organize other expeditions, in particular, contributed to the plans of another prominent explorer, O. Kotzebue. Kruzenshtern took part in the creation of the famous Russian Geographical Society, which was destined to take one of the leading places not only in Russian, but also in world science. Of particular importance for the development of geography was the Atlas of the South Sea he published.

Preparing a new expedition

Krusenstern, a few years after his trip, insisted on a thorough study of the southern latitudes. He proposed to equip two expeditions to the North and South Poles, two ships each. Prior to this, the navigator came very close to Antarctica, but the ice prevented him from passing further. Then he suggested that the sixth continent either does not exist, or it is impossible to get to it.

In 1819, the Russian leadership decided to equip a new squadron for navigation. Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen, after a series of delays, was appointed its leader. It was decided to build two ships: Mirny and Vostok. The first was designed according to the plan of Russian scientists. It was durable and water resistant. However, the second, built in the UK, was less stable, so it had to be rebuilt, rebuilt and repaired more than once. The preparation and construction was led by Mikhail Lazarev, who complained about such a discrepancy between the two ships.

Journey south

A new expedition set off in 1819. She reached Brazil and, rounding the mainland, came to the Sandwich Islands. In January 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the sixth continent - Antarctica. During the maneuvers around it, many islands were discovered and described. Among the most significant discoveries are the island of Peter I, the coast of Alexander I. Having made the necessary description of the coast, as well as sketches of the animals seen on the new mainland, Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen sailed back.

During the expedition, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, other discoveries were made. For example, participants discovered that Sandwich Land is an entire archipelago. In addition, the island of South Georgia has been described. Of particular importance are the descriptions of the new continent. From his ship, Mikhail Lazarev had the opportunity to observe the earth better, so his conclusions are of particular value for science.

The value of the discoveries

The expedition of 1819-1821 was of great importance for domestic and world geographical science. The discovery of a new, sixth continent, turned the idea of ​​the geography of the Earth upside down. Both travelers published the results of their research in two volumes with an atlas and necessary instructions. During the trip, about thirty islands were described, made great sketches species of Antarctica and its fauna. In addition, the expedition members have collected a unique ethnographic collection, which is kept at Kazan University.

Further activities

Bellingshausen subsequently continued his naval career. He participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, commanded the Baltic Fleet, and then was appointed governor of Kronstadt. An indicator of the recognition of his merits is the fact that a number of geographical objects. First of all, the sea in the Pacific Ocean should be mentioned.

Lazarev also distinguished himself after his famous trip to Antarctica. He was appointed commander of an expedition to protect the coast of Russian America from smugglers, with which he successfully coped. Subsequently, he commanded the Black Sea Fleet, participated in which he received several awards. So, the great discoverers from Russia also make your outstanding contribution to the development of geography.