Geographical position

Remark 1

The East African Plateau is a territory located on both sides of the equator, between the Somali Peninsula, the Ethiopian Highlands, Eastern Sudan in the north and the lower Zambezi in the south and between the Indian Ocean in the east and the Congo Basin in the west. The plateau lies from 5 ° N. sh. to 17°S sh.

The East African Plateau is a tectonically active, mobile part of the African Platform. It is here that the highest points of the African continent and the largest rift system are located. The platform consists of Precambrian crystalline rocks, mainly granite. The basement is covered with Mesozoic and Paleozoic continental deposits.

Figure 1. East African Plateau. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

The plateau has been uplifted for a long time. Rifts and tectonic faults arose in the Cenozoic. They are a continuation of the Ethiopian highlands, the Red Sea grabens, to the south of Lake Rudolf they branch out and form three fault systems: central, western and eastern.

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Rifts are narrow depressions with steep stepped slopes. On their periphery there are high mountain systems: the Rwenzori massif, the volcanoes of Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Elgon, etc. At present, volcanic activity continues along the faults.

Areas not affected by faults have the appearance of a peneplain with insular mountains.

On the East African plateau there are vast basins, in one of which Lake Victoria is located.

Fault systems of the East African Plateau

In the East African Plateau, the following fault systems are distinguished:

1. The western fault system stretches along the western regions of the plateau. It was a deep grabens occupied by lakes Edward, Albert (Mobutu-Sese-Seko), Tanganyika, Kivu, the valley of the Albert Nile river. From Tanganyika, this system of faults stretched through the tectonic basin of about. Nyasa, the hollow with Lake Rukva, the valley of the Shire River, the lower reaches of the Zambezi. This territory is one of the most seismically active zones of the continent. The grabens of Lakes Eduard and Albert separate the Rwenzori Massif. The massif includes crystalline schists, gneisses, intrusions of mafic rocks. Rwenzori has glacial forms of Quaternary and modern glaciation (circuses, kars, terminal moraines, trough valleys). Between the grabens of the Kivu and Eduard lakes is the Virunga volcanic region, on the territory of which there are seven volcanoes. Currently, new volcanic cones continue to form. Between the basins of Lakes Tanganyika and Kivu there is a tectonic trough covered with ancient lavas. At the bottom of lakes Nyasa and Kivu, constant volcanic eruptions occur. Between the lakes Victoria, Albert, Edward and the White Nile basin there is the Lake Plateau (1000-1500 m), composed mainly of crystalline rocks. In the central part of the plateau there is Lake Kyoga and a swampy valley.
2. The Central Fault System is a continuation of the Ethiopian Graben, which runs north-south from Lake Rudolf to Lake Nyasa, where it joins the western fault system. In the northern regions within the boundaries of the volcanic plateau of Kenya, volcanic relief is clearly manifested. Extinct volcanoes Elgon, Kenya, Kilimanjaro, a group of giant craters (Ngorongoro Volcano) rise along tectonic cracks covered with tuffs and basalts.
3. The eastern fault system is characterized mainly by one-sided normal faults, which limit the narrow coastal lowland from the west by ledges. The lowland is composed mainly of limestones and tertiary sandstones.

Between the central and western fault systems, between lakes Nyasa and Victoria, there is the Unyamwezi Plateau. The plateau is heavily swamped and composed of granites. To the east are the Masai and Nyasa plateaus.

Climatic conditions

The climate of the East African Plateau is subequatorial. It is variable-humid, hot, with a clearly defined zonality on high mountain ranges. On the Lake Plateau and in the vicinity of Lake Victoria, the climate is approaching equatorial, which is evidenced by the precipitation regime, their quantity, and the even temperature course.

Equatorial monsoons and trade winds dominate on the territory of the plateau. In winter (in the Northern Hemisphere), the northeast trade wind blows, which over the Kalahari is drawn into a baric depression. Passing from Southeast Asia to Africa over the ocean, it emits no a large number of precipitation. In summer, the southeast wind intensifies, the south trade wind, which, passing through the equator, acquires the character of a southwest monsoon.

High temperatures are observed along the coast of the Indian Ocean and at low altitudes. The average temperature in January (the warmest month) is +28 °С, in August (the coldest) - +23 °С. The temperature decreases with height, while the annual figures remain uniform. Above 2000 m the temperature can drop below 0 °C, and above 3500 m snow falls. On the highest mountain ranges - Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Rwenzori there are small glaciers.

Precipitation on the territory of the East African Plateau falls unevenly:

• 2000-3000 mm - highland areas;
• from 1000 to 1500 mm - the coast of the Indian Ocean, the northwest and southwest of the plateau;
• 750-1000 mm - the central regions of the plateau;
• 500 mm and less - closed depressions and the territory of the extreme northeast.

The driest region of the East African Plateau is Kenya. Here periods without precipitation can last up to 7-9 months.

The equatorial precipitation regime can be observed between 5° N. sh. and 5°S sh. For these territories, there are two rainy seasons (November-December, March-May) and two periods of decreasing precipitation. In the southern regions, one rainy season can be observed, lasting from October to April, which is replaced by a long dry weather.

The East African Plateau separates the basins mediterranean sea and the Indian and Atlantic Oceans.

In the north-west of the plateau, the Nile River originates, to the system of which the Kyoga, Victoria, Edward and Albert lakes belong. Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika belong to the Congo system, and Lake Nyasa has a drain in the Zambezi. There are many endorheic lakes in the central part: Rukva, Rudolf, Baringo, etc. In terms of size, depth, influence on climate and runoff, the lakes of the plateau can be compared with the Great Lakes of North America.

The diversity and variegation of landscapes is determined by: diversity of relief, tectonic fragmentation, diversity climatic conditions. In the interior, there are many typical savannahs with large tracts of shrubs and light forests that shed their leaves in the dry season. The vegetation is represented by cereals, mimosas, acacias, tamarisks, baobabs, etc.

That is why mountain-building processes on the mainland are very poorly developed - young mountains grow only in the north of the continent.

More than 4/5 of Africa is occupied by plateaus. Lowlands on the mainland are virtually absent. Not only the mainland is located on the African-Arabian platform, but also Madagascar, Seychelles and the Arabian Peninsula.

The African Highlands are located in the southeastern part of the mainland. The average heights here exceed 1000 m above sea level. In this region, the African-Arabian platform rises somewhat.

The Ethiopian highlands are located in southeastern Africa. This part of the mainland is called High Africa, it is here that the highest peak of the continent, Mount Kilimanjaro, is located.

These areas are characterized by frequent earthquakes, which provoke the eruptions of the Karisimbi and Cameroon volcanoes. Highlands are also found in the Sahara desert, the highest of them being the Tibesti and Ahaggar highlands.

Mountains of Africa

On the coast of the Indian Ocean are the Cape and dragon mountains- their height decreases towards the center of the mainland. The Cape Mountains formed during the Upper Paleozoic.

The region of the Cape Mountains is characterized by a Mediterranean type of climate. The Cape Mountains are a vivid example of the revived mountains that were formed on the ancient destroyed mountain systems and inherited from them the folded structure that can be traced in the modern relief.

The highest peak of the Cape Mountains is Mount Compasberg, whose height reaches 2500 m. In the north of the mainland, as a result of the displacement of the spirit of the lithospheric plates, young Atlas Mountains were formed.

These mountains are a continuation of the young mountains of Europe, which are located in the Gibraltar region. The length of the mountain ranges of the Atlas Mountains is 2500 km: they originate in the north of Morocco and stretch to Tunisia.

The highest peak of the Atlas Mountains is Mount Toubkal (4100m). Due to tectonic faults, earthquakes often occur in the Atlas Mountains region.

Lowlands of Africa

The lowlands of Africa occupy only 9% of its territory. The lowest point on the continent salt Lake Assal, which is located on the territory of the state of Djibouti (Red Sea coast). Lowlands are also common in some countries of Central Africa.

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Previous topic: The history of the discovery and exploration of Africa: the expeditions of Henry the Navigator and the Cape of Good Hope
Next topic:   Minerals of Africa: characteristics of minerals in different regions of Africa

Africa is part of the world. Geography of African countries

Mining regions of Africa

Over the past decades, Africa has become one of the largest producers of mineral raw materials.

Its share in the world mining industry is approximately 1/7, but in the production of diamonds, gold, cobalt, manganese ores, chromites, uranium concentrates, phosphorites, it is much larger. Much copper and iron ore, bauxite, oil and natural gas are also mined.

Let us add that Africa dominates the market of such "metals of the 20th century" as vanadium, lithium, beryllium, tantalum, niobium, and germanium. Almost all of the extracted raw materials and fuel are exported from Africa to economically developed countries, which makes its economy very dependent on the world market.

In particular, this applies to countries such as Algeria, Libya, Guinea, Zambia, Botswana, where the mining industry provides more than 9/10 of all exports.

For the development of the mining industry, Africa has very favorable natural preconditions.

Its minerals are genetically related, firstly, to the outcrops of the folded basement of the African Platform, secondly, to the sedimentary deposits of the cover of this platform, thirdly, to the areas of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic (Alpine) folding, fourthly, to the sedimentary deposits of foothill and intermountain troughs, fifthly, with lateritic weathering crusts, and, finally, sixthly, with intrusions of igneous rocks.

In this case, for example, deposits of iron and copper ores can occur both in the outcrops of the crystalline basement and in the cover of sedimentary deposits, and iron ore can also be found in the lateritic weathering crust.

It must also be borne in mind that the bowels of Africa have not yet been studied enough. In recent decades, prospecting and exploration activities have been expanded and have led to a significant increase in the reserves of most minerals.

But nevertheless, many, especially deep, horizons in this sense still remain "terra incognita", which opens up prospects for new great geological discoveries - just as it happened in the 1950s-1960s. with African oil.

In total, in Africa, one can distinguish seven major mining regions.

Three of them are in North Africa and four are in sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 149).

Two of the North African mining regions predate World War II and have been further developed in recent decades.

This is the region of the Atlas Mountains, where rather large deposits of iron, manganese, and polymetallic ores are associated with mineralization processes that took place during the Hercynian folding period.

But the main wealth of this region is the world's largest phosphorite-bearing belt, stretching along the southern slopes of the Atlas through the territory of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The thickness of the phosphorite suite here reaches 80-100 m, and the total reserves of phosphorites (in terms of P205) amount to 22 billion tons, of which 21 billion are in Morocco. In terms of phosphorite mining, this country is second only to the United States and China, and in terms of their export it ranks first in the world.

Second mining region North Africa is located in Egypt. Here, deposits of oil and natural gas, iron, titanium and other ores, phosphorites, rock salt and other fossil raw materials are connected with the sedimentary cover of the Nubian-Arabian massif and with the rift basins of the Red Sea.

Rice. 149.

Mining areas in Africa

But, of course, the main mining region of North Africa is the youngest of them, located within the Algerian and Libyan parts of the Sahara desert.

The territorial combination of mineral resources in it is much more limited and is actually represented only by oil and natural gas, but in terms of the size of their reserves, production and the overall role of the region in the world economy, it is far ahead.

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Physical and geographical characteristics of South Africa.

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High Africa. South Africa occupies a high part of the mainland south of the watershed plateau between the Congo and Zambezi river basins. The relief is dominated by plateaus and plateaus. The country is distinguished by a wide variety of landscapes due to the sharp contrasts in moisture and the relief of individual areas.

The main part is occupied by the South African Plateau, to which the Cape Mountains adjoin from the south. A special natural area forms the island of Madagascar.

South African plateau lies within the Precambrian African Platform, occupying the Kalahari and Karoo syneclises. The Precambrian basement in the Kalahari syneclise is shallow and in some places comes to the surface, forming ledges and uplifts; the sedimentary cover is represented by horizontal Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic continental deposits, mainly sandstones and sands (Kalahari Formation).

The Karoo syneclise is a piedmont trough of the platform, which arose in connection with the formation of the Cape mountain system; within its limits, the crystalline basement is deeply lowered and hidden under a thick layer of Permian-Triassic lagoonal sediments, mainly sandstones and shales (Karru Formation); in some places these rocks are intruded by lavas.

The deposits of the Karoo Formation make up the southern and southeastern plateaus.

In terms of surface structure, the South African Plateau has much in common with the Congo Basin, but is located much higher. The central part of the plateau is occupied by plains kalahari basins, lying at an altitude of 900-1000 m; here, red and white sands are common on the surface, hilly into low dunes.

The Kalahari Basin is surrounded on all sides by marginal plateaus and uplands with numerous insular remnant massifs and mountains.

They gradually rise towards the outskirts up to 1200-2500 m and more. The greatest width of the plateau is reached in the east and south of the region.

To the east are the Matabele and Weld Plateaus, and to the south the Upper Karoo Plateau.

Matabele Plateau lies between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. The plateau is composed of crystalline rocks; its surface is slightly hilly, there are separate insular mountains. The marginal parts of the plateau are strongly dissected by river erosion and stand out sharply above the neighboring plains.

South of the Limpopo River is located Weld plateau. It is a series of stepped plateaus (High, Middle, Shrub, and Low Weld) descending towards the Kalahari Basin and the Limpopo River Valley.

The plateaus are composed of sandstones, shales and conglomerates of the karru formation, in places intrusive and volcanic rocks.

Upper Karoo, located south of the Orange River, closes the Kalahari Basin in the south, descending to it in several steps.

The plateau is composed of horizontally occurring sandstones and shales, penetrated by numerous intrusions, forming remnant elevations, sometimes sharp peaks.

In the west of the plateau, the strip of marginal plateaus narrows. Plateaus are composed of crystalline rocks and continental deposits. They are crowned with insular mountains and remnant massifs, reaching their highest height in the Comas Plateau, where dislocated slates and quartzites are exposed.

The marginal plateaus of the South African Plateau in the west, east and south drop off steeply to the coastal plains and depression Big Karoo by the Great Ledge, the outer slopes of which are deeply dissected by river erosion.

The Ledge reaches its highest height in the east, in the Dragon Mountains. The southern part of the mountains - the Basuto Highlands, which has basalt lavas - is the highest massif of the Kalahari ring frame. Its peak Thabana-Ntlenyana (3482 m) is the highest in South Africa.

The marginal plateaus in the east are adjoined by a vast Mozambique lowlands.

It is composed of Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits and is broken up by tectonic fissures in the northern part. In the west, the plateaus of the marginal plateaus break off to the coastal plain. Its section between the rivers Kunene and Orange is the Namib Desert. The desert stretches from north to south for more than 1500 km, occupying a narrow strip of ancient crystalline peneplain, crushed by faults.

The plateau lies in the subequatorial, tropical and subtropical climatic zones.

However, tropical climate types predominate. In the summer of the Southern Hemisphere, a local baric depression forms over the Kalahari.

The north of the region (up to the middle reaches of the Zambezi) is irrigated by the summer equatorial monsoon. The entire eastern part is influenced by the southeast trade wind, which brings moist tropical air from the Indian Ocean, heated over the warm Mozambique Current.

Abundant precipitation falls on the Mozambique lowlands, the slopes of the Great Escarpment and the eastern marginal plateaus. To the west of the Great Ledge and the marginal plateaus, marine tropical air quickly transforms into continental air and the amount of precipitation decreases.

The west coast is under the influence of the South Atlantic High, which is intensified by the powerful cold Benguela Current. Atlantic air warms up over the surface of the mainland and emits almost no precipitation.

On the western marginal plateaus there is a front between the maritime Atlantic and continental tropical air; here the amount of precipitation increases slightly.

In the winter of the Southern Hemisphere, a local anticyclone forms over the plateau, merging with the South Atlantic and South Indian baric maxima. Downward currents of air determine the dry season; precipitation does not fall.

The South African Plateau is an area of ​​relatively high temperatures, significant daily and annual fluctuations. But on the plateau temperatures are moderated by a considerable height. Over most of the plateau, summer temperatures are + 20- * + 25 ° C, not rising above + 40 ° C; winter temperatures are +10 - + 16°С.

On the Upper Karoo Plateau, frosts occur in winter, and snow falls on the Basuto Highlands.

The plateau is an area of ​​predominantly meager precipitation, which is distributed very unevenly over its territory. Their number decreases when moving from east and north to west and south. In the north of the region, up to 1500 mm of moisture falls annually; here the rainy season brought by the equatorial monsoons lasts up to 7 months. A lot of precipitation falls on the east coast, where the barrier role of the Great Ledge is especially pronounced.

Precipitation is brought here by the southeast summer trade wind (more than 1000 mm per year, and on the slopes of the Basuto highlands - over 2000 mm). The most frequent and heavy rains fall from November to April. On the eastern marginal plateaus, precipitation decreases on the Weld Plateau (750-500) and Matabele (750-1000 mm). The summer maximum precipitation is also preserved in the interior regions, but their annual amounts are decreasing.

On the central Kalahari plains, the rainy season is reduced to 5-6 months, the annual precipitation does not exceed 500 mm. To the southwest, the amount of precipitation decreases to 125 mm per year. The driest part of the region is the coastal Namib desert (less than 100 mm of precipitation per year). Little precipitation will fall on the western marginal plateaus (up to 300 mm per year).

The river network on the plateau is poorly developed.

Most of the channels of the Kalahari, the western and southern marginal plateaus do not have permanent watercourses. The largest river is the Zambezi.

The large rivers of the region - the Orange and the Limpopo collect their waters from the Matabele plateau and the High Weld. The Okovango River is the main water system of the inland drainage of the Kalahari Basin. During rains, the Okovango basin sometimes overflows with water, its excess being directed from Okovango to the Zambezi and the Makarikari salt marsh.

The large size of the South African plateau, differences in relief and climate create a variety of landscapes.

Almost all landscapes of the mainland are represented in South Africa..

Along with zonal differences, there are also sectoral differences.

The eastern humid oceanic, mid-continental and western relatively cool desert oceanic sectors are well expressed in the region. In the eastern sector, where there is a lot of precipitation, zones of seasonally humid forests change from north to south: subequatorial (up to 20 ° S), tropical (20-30 ° S) and subtropical monsoon.

On the slopes of the Dragon Mountains, altitudinal zonality of the forest-meadow type is well expressed. Seasonally humid forests occupy the windward slopes up to a height of 800-1000 m. Above, shrub thickets and mountain-valley, mainly coniferous forests, meadows, and rocky placers appear; similar vegetation is characteristic of the Basuto Highlands (thickets of bushes, individual trees, meadows and stony placers).

In the middle continental sector (Kalahari Basin and marginal plateaus), natural zones of savannas, woodlands and shrubs of the subequatorial and tropical belts, tropical and subtropical semi-deserts, and subtropical mountain steppes are developed.

However, semi-desert landscapes dominate.

Lowlands, plains, plateaus

Rare vegetation consists of xerophytic herbs, shrubs and individual acacias, spurges, aloe. The Kalahari is characterized by wild watermelons, the stems of which cover large areas.

In the western oceanic sector is the tropical desert of Nami b. In its southern part, along the valleys of dry channels and in places where groundwater is shallow, rather dense vegetation of succulent shrubs and semi-shrubs, stunted acacias and hard grasses is developed.

The most interesting plant of the northern part of the desert is an ancient relic of velvichia.

The South African plateau, with its inherent variety of landscapes, has a rich and varied fauna.

But the number of wild animals is now markedly reduced, and many of their species are disappearing. The number of herbivorous animals - antelopes, zebras, giraffes - has especially decreased, and predators have also been greatly exterminated. Lions, leopards, wild cats have almost completely disappeared, hyenas and jackals are more common. Most large nature reserve areas - national park Kruger in South Africa. Almost all African animals are collected here.

cape mountains located in the extreme southwest and south of the mainland, between the mouth of the Olifants River in the west and the city of Port Elizabeth in the east.

They stretched along the coast for 800 km, their average height 1500 m. They are separated from the Great Ledge of the South African Plateau by the Big Karoo depression.

Fold-forming processes here took place from the second half of the Carboniferous to the second half of the Triassic, which includes their main phases.

Therefore, the age of the Cape Mountains is somewhat younger than typical Hercynian structures. Subsequently, they were destroyed and smoothed, and then rejuvenated by later uplifts.

The Cape Mountains consist of several anticline ridges that have a blocky character. The ridges are separated by wide longitudinal synclinal valleys and narrow transverse gorges.

The main part of the Cape Mountains is the southern system of latitudinal ranges.

Here are the highest (up to 2324 m) and long mountains Zwartberg (Small and Big) and Langeberg, between which lies the intermountain plateau of the Little Karoo. To the east, the ridges decrease and break into the sea with rocky capes. In the extreme south, they break up into small isolated ridges and massifs rising among the coastal plain. Another system of ridges is extended along the Atlantic Ocean in a north-north-west direction.

In the southwest and south, the mountains come at an angle to the coast, indented with convenient bays.

The climate of the Cape Mountains is subtropical. In the southwest, it is of the Mediterranean type, with rainy, warm winters and dry, hot summers. Temperatures are tempered by altitude and sea. In Cape Town, the average temperature in January is + 21 ° С, in July + 12 ° С. Rains begin in April, are heavy from June to September, and then stop as moist westerly winds give way to subtropical anticyclone winds.

In winter, snow falls on the tops of the mountains. In the western part of the mountains, on their windward slopes, the greatest amount of precipitation falls (up to 1800 mm per year). To the east, their number decreases to 800 mm. East of 22° E. in the precipitation regime, the typical features of the Mediterranean climate disappear, and the summer maximum begins to predominate due to the penetration of humid oceanic monsoons onto the mainland.

There is little precipitation on the coastal plain (in Cape Town - 650 mm per year). The climate of the inner parts of the mountains is subtropical continental.

The Cape Mountains are covered mainly with vegetation of the Mediterranean type, with a predominance of evergreen hard-leaved shrubs and herbaceous perennials.

Here the landscapes have much in common with the Atlas Mountains. They are also characterized by brown (typical and leached) and mountain forest brown soils.

However, the floristic composition of vegetation is different, specific to the Cape flora. very typical times

personal heathers, proteas, pelargoniums, mesembryanthemums, aloe, cactus-like spurges, crassula, etc. Interesting Cape nightshade with yellow poisonous fruits, silver tree with silvery fluffy leaves, Cape water lily with red flowers, wild watermelon, etc.

There are few trees among the Cape flora. Species of evergreen shrubs and perennial grasses predominate.

Thickets of evergreen hard-leaved shrubs form the fynbosh formation (an analogue of the Mediterranean maquis), which arose on the site of reduced forests that previously covered mountain slopes.

The composition of the fynbos includes representatives of the Proteaceae family (including the silver tree), heather, legumes, bellflowers and rue.

Forests have survived only on inaccessible, well-moistened mountain slopes.

In the west, in deep and inaccessible valleys, you can find a few groves of southern conifers (podo-carpus, etc.), in the east, on the slopes of the mountains, there are dense monsoon mixed forests, consisting of coniferous and evergreen deciduous trees (olive laurel, Cape beech, etc. .) trees. Palm groves grow on the coastal lowlands.

Vast areas in the Cape Mountains are covered with herbs with a predominance of bulbous, tuberous and rhizomatous forms from the amaryllid, iris, orchid and labiate families.

Immortelle, cineraria and other Compositae are characteristic. Semi-desert landscapes with succulent shrubs and semi-shrubs are developed on especially dry and hot lee slopes and in hollows. Thickets of acacia and aloe are common along the rivers in the Small Karru depression, in other parts the vegetation is represented by rare shrubs.

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see also photos of the nature of the South African plateau(with geographical and biological captions for photographs) from the section Natural landscapes of the world:

On the gentle slopes of the eastern plateaus, facing the interior of the continent, there is still quite a lot of precipitation; treeless terrain prevails there with a dense cover of tall grasses (). Such a landscape in South Africa is called "weld".

As we move to the west, the amount of precipitation decreases and the vegetation takes on an increasingly xerophytic appearance. It consists of various bulbs that turn green and bloom only during a short period of rains, low-growing thorny acacias, numerous types of aloe. In the Kalahari there are completely barren rocky areas where plants do not form a continuous cover (). Wild watermelons are very characteristic of the Kalahari, the lashes of which cover large areas. Apparently, all known cultivated types of watermelons originate from here. With a large lack of moisture, watermelons with their water reserves save people and animals from thirst.

The vegetation of the Namib Desert is even poorer, where there are only individual specimens of velvichia, fixed on the sands with powerful roots, and undersized thorny shrubs ().

The shores of drying lakes and swamps in the Kalahari depressions and the upper reaches of the Zambezi are covered with more moisture-loving vegetation (), which serves as a refuge for wild animals.

East Africa - a subcontinent located in the east of the mainland, unites two physiographic countries: the Ethiopian Highlands and the Somali Peninsula and the East African Highlands (plateau). The region is elongated in a submeridional direction (between 18° north and south latitude). It begins in the north at the southeastern margin of the Sahara, in the west it has fairly clear orographically determined boundaries with the regions of North and Central Africa, in the south it is separated by a system of faults from similar structures in South Africa, reaching the tectonic valley of the lower reaches of the river. Zambezi. In the east, the subcontinent faces the Indian Ocean and its seas.

The subcontinent is located in the most tectonically active part of the African Platform in the development zone of a grandiose complex system of continental rifts, which is unparalleled both in length and amplitude of vertical movements.

East African rift zones occupy a special place in shaping the nature of the region. They are associated with relief features, predominantly mountainous and flat-mountainous, the widespread development of volcanism, including modern, and increased seismicity. Rifts are expressed by grabens, the bottoms of which are often occupied by lakes.

The region is located in the zone of action of the equatorial monsoons of both hemispheres. A characteristic feature of its climates is the extreme differentiation of moisture conditions not only by seasons, but also within the territory. To a large extent, this depends on the fragmentation of the relief and configuration. coastline.

• East Africa is characterized by a great variety of soil and vegetation cover - from evergreen tropical rainforests on windward mountain slopes to the desert landscapes of the Afar Basin.
• Large areas are occupied by savannas of various types. Altitude zonality is expressed in the mountains.
• East Africa is the main watershed of the mainland. From here, the rivers of the Indian Ocean basins, the Mediterranean Sea and the Congo river system, bearing to the Atlantic, originate.
• The fauna of the subcontinent is very rich and diverse: all the main representatives of the fauna of the African savannas live here.
• East Africa is an area of ​​fairly dense settlement and long-standing agricultural land use.
• The subcontinent has large reserves of minerals. In connection with human activities, the nature of the subcontinent has been significantly changed.
• East Africa is regarded as the ancestral home of man. Perhaps it was here that the species Homo sapiens arose as a result of the evolution of ancient primates.

Ethiopian Highlands and Somali Plateau

This physiographic country includes the Ethiopian highlands, the Afar depression, the plateau and the coastal lowland of the Somali peninsula. In the west, the region borders on the White Nile basin, in the south - on the East African Highlands, in the north and east it goes to the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and directly to the Indian Ocean. Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti are located on its territory, in 1993 Eritrea separated from Ethiopia.

As a result of active tectonic movements, a very diverse and even contrasting relief was formed here. The main part of the region is occupied by the Ethiopian Highlands, which is a highly elevated block of the African Platform within the Eritrean anteclise (Nubian-Arabian arch), almost bounded by faults on all sides.

The height reaches 3000-4000 meters, the highest point is Ras Dashan (4623 meters). The steep stepped slopes of the highlands make it difficult to access, which is why it is often called a bastion massif. Fissure eruptions of trachyte and basalt lavas occurred along the fault lines. Covers were formed, having in some places a thickness of up to 2000 meters. Stepped lava plateaus - ambas are typical for the relief of the highlands. Cut in all directions by deep erosive-tectonic valleys-canyons, the ambas look like flat-topped remnants with separate volcanoes. Some of them have been active in historical times. Faults define the lines of the shores of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, limit the subsidence zone - the Afar depression. Its bottom, covered with lavas, is a low plateau with isolated volcanic cones. Separate basins lie below sea level. Lake Assal is the lowest place on the African continent (-153 meters). The Ethiopian graben in the south separates the highlands from the plateau of the Somali Peninsula, they descend in steps to the southeast to the Indian Ocean. The lower step is a wide, low-lying coastal plain. The eastern margin of the peninsula is also bounded by a fault, along which the ocean floor subsided.

In general, the climate of the country is subequatorial, variable humid, but the fragmentation of the relief determines the diversity and contrast of the climatic conditions of the region. Local factors of climate formation play here no less a role than general regularities.

Precipitation is mainly associated with the summer equatorial monsoon of the southwest direction. Most of the moisture (1000 mm per year or more) is received by the windward southwestern and western slopes of the Ethiopian highlands. The northern slopes are under the influence of tropical air. They are dry. Most of the Somali peninsula receives little rainfall (250-500 mm per year). Even on the coast of the Indian Ocean, the climate is arid, as the flow of the southwest monsoon moves along the coastline here. The driest areas are the Ethiopian graben, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and especially the Afar depression. The entire region, except for mountainous areas, is characterized by high air temperatures: average monthly temperatures are not lower than 20°C, maximum temperatures are up to 40-50°C. The Afar depression is one of the hottest places: the average January there is 24 ° C, the average July is 36 ° C. The Ethiopian highlands are much cooler. Altitude climatic zonality is traced here:

• colla belt (hot) - up to a height of 1500-1800 meters; average monthly temperatures - 20°C and above, the amount of precipitation on the windward slopes - 1000-1500 mm per year;
• war-degas belt (moderate) - up to a height of 2400-2500 meters; small seasonal temperature fluctuations: in December - not lower than 13°С, in April (the warmest month) - not higher than 16-18°С; precipitation - 1500-2000 mm per year;
• degas belt (cold) - on high mountain ranges; average monthly temperatures do not exceed 16°C, in winter there are severe frosts, snow falls; however, there are no glaciers.

Thus, the region combines dry and hot climates of low plains, humid and cool climates of highlands and plateaus, humid and hot climates of the Kolla mountain belt and adjacent flat areas.

The river network is well developed in the Ethiopian highlands. Here originate one of the sources of the Nile - the Blue Nile, the right tributaries of the White Nile - Sobat and the Nile - Atbara, Omo. The Blue Nile carries twice as much water into the main river as the White Nile. Its runoff is regulated by Lake Tana. There are small lakes at the bottom of the Ethiopian graben. On the Somali Peninsula, the river network is poorly developed, most of the rivers dry up, and in the Afar depression there is practically no surface runoff, there are only a few small salt lakes. The river flows into one of them. Avash flowing down from the highlands.

The complex structure of the relief and the contrasts of climatic conditions determine the diversity of the vegetation cover of the Ethiopian-Somali region. In the Ethiopian Highlands, altitudinal zonation is exceptionally pronounced.

On the humid western slopes in the colla belt and in deep valleys with good moisture, dense evergreen tropical forests grow, which are close to equatorial in species composition and structure. The watershed plateaus are occupied by savannahs. Thickets of thorny bushes and xerophytic light forests dominate on dry leeward slopes. The War-Dega belt was once dominated by forests of cedars and yews, which have been largely cut down. The thickets of tree-like juniper and woodlands of deciduous trees - wild olive and fig tree - are better preserved. The main part of the belt is now occupied by a mountain savanna with candelabra-like spurges, umbrella acacias, giant sycamore trees and a rich grass cover of cereals. Coniferous forests of junipers, podocarpus, etc. grow in the lower part of the degas belt. Above, mountain meadows - grasslands with groves of the kusso tree and individual tree-like junipers predominate. Thickets of giant St. John's wort, tree-like heathers, and communities of xerophytic bush grasses appear even higher. The uppermost parts of the mountains are covered with rocky placers, which are covered with snow in winter. In the Afar depression and on the coasts of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, semi-desert and desert vegetation is developed. The interior plateaus of the Somali peninsula are dominated by landscapes of deserted savannahs.

The fauna is common for the savannas and tropical forests of Africa, including mountainous ones.

In the War-Dega belt, there are monkeys that cannot tolerate constant heat - hamadryas, Gverets, Geladas. The fauna of the region has a relatively high degree of preservation even outside protected areas. So, elephants live in the forests of the lower belt of mountains, and this is one of the few places where they do not live in reserves.

The Ethiopian highlands have significant agro-climatic and land resources. Its territory as a whole receives sufficient rainfall for agriculture. Particularly favorable are the conditions for growing valuable crops and for the life of people in the war-dega belt, with its relatively cool, constantly humid climate and fertile dark red and chernozem-like soils.

Most of the Ethiopian population lives here. This is one of the ancient centers of agriculture. They grow cereals, tobacco, oilseeds, citrus fruits, and grapes. The name of the belt, translated from the language of local peoples, means "grape zone". This belt is considered the birthplace of the coffee tree. In the south and southwest, coffee plantations rise up to 2000 meters. Some cereals also come from here - durum wheat, rye, barley, etc. Only some flat valleys are waterlogged, swampy and unfavorable for life. In the Kolla belt with a hot, humid climate, the population is sparse, but in some places there are plantations of coffee, cotton, and sugar cane. Cattle breeding is developed in dry regions. Cattle breeding (zebu, sheep, goats) is also carried out by the inhabitants of the degas - the cold zone, and only in its lower part, up to a height of 2800 meters, they grow the local teff cereal. At the lower boundary of this belt at an altitude of 2440 m is the capital of Ethiopia - Addis Ababa.

The arid territories of the Somali peninsula are not very suitable for agriculture. The population is concentrated in the river valleys and oases, where commercial tropical crops are grown on irrigated lands: bananas, sugar cane, cotton, date palm, and for own consumption - cereals and legumes. Most of the population is engaged in cattle breeding. In many places in Afar, desert coasts, the interior of the Somali plateau, even in wells, the water is brackish. There is practically no settled population. In the arid regions of this region, well-preserved bone remains of animals have been found, including ancient primates, which are considered human ancestors.

Large reserves of ore minerals are concentrated in the bowels of the region. There is gold, platinum, ores of copper, nickel, manganese, iron, niobium, uranium and thorium. There are also deposits of piezoquartz, potassium and table salts, native sulfur, mica, and gypsum. But only a small part of this wealth is used.

The main problem in the region is the lack of water in many parts of it. There are severe droughts that cause famine. Drought in the 70s 20th century in Somalia led to a huge reduction in the number of livestock and the death of a large number of people. Drought control is one of the most acute problems in the region. Despite the fairly good preservation of the fauna, many species of animals have been severely exterminated and are even on the verge of extinction. To protect them, several national parks and game reserves in Ethiopia and reserves in Somalia. They protect not only animals, but also typical and interesting landscapes, for example, in the territory of Awash Park, where there are manifestations of volcanic activity. Palm forests around hot springs and riverine gallery forests are subject to protection.

East African Highlands

Most of this physiographic country is located in the Southern Hemisphere. In the north, the East African Highlands borders on the Ethiopian along the faults in the area of ​​​​Lake Rudolf, to the south it extends to the valley of the river. Zambezi. The western border with the Congo basin runs along the watershed between the rivers of the Congo basin and the African Great Lakes. In the east, the region faces the Indian Ocean. Within its boundaries are Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Tanzania and northern Mozambique. In many features of nature, this physiographic country is similar to the Ethiopian highlands. Tectonic mobility, fragmentation of the relief, manifestations of ancient and modern volcanism, a subequatorial climate with sharp internal differences, and a variety of landscapes dominated by savannah formations determine the similarity of these regions. The rift zones of the East African Highlands are genetically related to the Ethiopian graben, which, in fact, is their continuation to the north. However, the region has a number of natural features that distinguish it from the Ethiopian-Somali country.

With no less tectonic mobility than in the Ethiopian Highlands, the areas of lava covers are not so large in the East African Highlands. There are volcanic massifs, often of considerable height: Kilimanjaro (Kibo peak - 5895 meters, the highest point of the mainland), Kenya (5199 meters), Meru (4567 meters), Karisimbi (4507 meters), Elgon (4322 meters), etc. Among the large and there are many active small volcanoes.

The highlands are located within the anteclise of the ancient African platform with outcrops of crystalline rocks, in some places overlain by continental sediments and lava covers. In the Cenozoic, the rising dome of the anteclise was broken by rift faults. There are three branches of continental rifts. The western rift runs along the entire western margin of the highlands. Within its limits, a system of grabens is formed - from the graben occupied by the valley of the river. Albert Nile, in the north, to the tectonic valley of the lower reaches of the river. Zambezi. Most of them are a chain of narrow, long and deep lake basins (the bottom of Lake Tanganyika lies more than 600 meters below sea level). Between them and along the sides of the grabens there are horst and dome uplifts with an average height of 1000-3000 meters. They are usually associated active volcanoes. Between the lakes Albert and Eduard rises the Rwenzori massif (Mountains of the Moon), reaching at its highest point - Margherita Peak - 5109 meters. The entire area is highly seismic. The central rift begins in the north with the basin of Lake Rudolf and in the south in the basin of Lake Nyasa merges with the western branch. Here, a flat-bottomed valley (the Great Valley, or Rift Valley) with steep slopes (“rift shoulders”) was formed in the graben. At the bottom of it are many small salt lakes. Within this zone eruptions of lavas occurred, and then the central type was formed, which, including the highest massifs of the highlands, rise along tectonic fissures. Calderas are also characteristic of this zone, including the famous Ngorongoro Crater with a diameter of 22 km. The eastern fault zone descends in fault steps towards the Indian Ocean and defines the rectilinear outlines of the coastline. The spaces between the rift zones are dominated by a flat-mountainous relief, more or less leveled, with remnant mountains and uplands.

The subequatorial climate of the highlands has its own characteristics.

In the southern part, winds with an eastern component dominate throughout the year, since the northeastern winter monsoon of the Northern Hemisphere does not change direction when crossing the equator, dragging into the South African baric minimum. In the north, the southwest monsoon dominates in summer. Precipitation winter period- orographic, so only the windward slopes of the mountains are irrigated. Humidification of different regions within the highlands is not the same. The greatest amount of precipitation (up to 2000-3000 mm per year) is received by high mountain ranges. In the north-west and south-west of the country and on the mountainous coast south of 5 ° S. sh. falls 1000-1500 mm. In the rest of the highlands, the annual precipitation is 700-1000 mm, and in closed depressions and in the extreme northeast - no more than 500 mm. Due to the general high hypsometric level of the East African Highlands, in most of its territory, air temperatures are relatively low (monthly averages are not higher than 19-20 ° C). Only at low altitudes, mainly on the coast, they rise to 23-28°C. Annual amplitudes of average monthly temperatures are up to 5-6°С. In the mountains above 2000 meters there are frosts, at an altitude of 3500 meters snow falls, the most high peaks(Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Rwenzori) have ice caps.

The East African Highlands - the "roof of Africa" ​​- is the highest region of the mainland and the main watershed of the basins of the Indian, Atlantic Oceans and the Mediterranean Sea. This is where the river starts. Nile, numerous tributaries of the river flow from here. Congo (Lualaba), r. Zambezi, a large number of rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean. The highlands are distinguished by one of the largest clusters of lakes on Earth. The African Great Lakes, occupying grabens in the Western Rift Zone, have an elongated shape and great depths (Tanganyika - up to 1435 meters). They are usually flowing and fresh. In a vast tectonic basin outside the rift zones lies the second largest freshwater reservoir in the world - Lake Victoria. Large masses of water in large lakes have a significant impact on local climates. There are many salt lakes on the bottoms of the grabens in the Central Rift - Natron, Nakuru, etc.

Most of the highlands are occupied by typical savannahs and light forests.

In the most arid northeastern regions, the same plant groups are common as on the Somali Peninsula (desert savannas). Drainage basins of salt lakes are surrounded by salt marshes with halophyte vegetation. In the western regions with a humid climate, the lower slopes of the mountains and the coasts of lakes were occupied by hylaea, which are now replaced in large areas by mixed forests with an admixture of deciduous species and tall grass savannas. Altitude zonality is expressed in the mountains. Among the belts, the “belt of fogs” with mountain hylaea (2300-2500 meters) and the belt of mountain meadows with giant lobelia and tree-like crossworts stand out. The nival belt starts at a height of 4,800 meters.

Nowhere in the world is there such a variety of large animals, especially the inhabitants of the savannas.

Antelopes, buffaloes, zebras, giraffes and other herbivores once densely populated the highlands. They were hunted by large predators (lions, leopards, cheetahs, etc.). There were many elephants, rhinos, hippos, various monkeys. Prolonged extermination caused a strong decrease in the number of animals, some of the species are on the verge of extinction. Numerous national parks and reserves have been created in the countries of the region, in which the number of animals is regulated. Among the world-famous parks are Virunga, Kagera, Mount Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Serengeti, Ngorongoro (a natural "aviary" bounded by the slopes of the caldera), Nakuru, where 370 species of birds live near the lake, including giant flamingo colonies. Mountain gorillas live in the southern protected part of the Kivu Park.

Scientific research is being carried out in protected areas. The countries of the region receive solid income from foreign tourists who are attracted here by exotic fauna and flora, unusual landscapes, the possibility of sport hunting under licenses.

In addition to land, agro-climatic and biological resources, the East African Highlands has unique reserves fresh water, concentrated in the African Great Lakes, which are used both for water supply, and as transport routes, and as a source of fish. The subsoil of the region is rich: there is gold, diamonds, various ores, salts are mined, including sodium carbonate - natron.

The region is densely populated, but unevenly populated. Most people live on the shores of fresh lakes. Maasai pastoralists roam the savannahs of Kenya and Tanzania. Almost all landscapes of the East African Highlands have undergone anthropogenic changes.

The subcontinent South Africa occupies the south of the African continent. In the north, the border with Central Africa runs along the watersheds of the river basin. Congo, in the northeast (c) - along a tectonic fault occupied by the river valley. Zambezi. The rest of the borders are maritime. The subcontinent of South Africa includes two mainland physiographic countries: the South African plateaus and plateaus, the Cape Mountains and the island of Madagascar, which has some common features of nature with them.

The unity of the region is determined by the predominance of an elevated relief within its boundaries, higher along the outskirts and somewhat lowered in the central parts, as well as by the position in the narrowed southern part of the mainland, which, combined with the relief features, causes a change in natural conditions rather from west to east than from north to south. This pattern is manifested in all three physiographic countries of the subcontinent. Main ecological problems region - land degradation in conditions of dissected relief and irrational nature management and desertification in arid regions.

South African plateaus and plateaus

The physiographic country occupies most of South Africa. The southern border (with the Cape Mountains) runs along the foot of the Great Ledge in the north of the Great Karoo Basin. Within the region are the Republic of South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and the southern parts of Angola, Zambia and Mozambique.

The outskirts of the region are elevated, and in the center there is a chain of basins - Kalahari, Makarikari, Okavanga and Upper Zambezi. Such a structure is associated with the last stages of geological history: since the Mesozoic, the territory has risen, and the outskirts at a faster rate than the central parts.

This is a high region. Even the bottoms of the basins lie at altitudes of 900-1000 meters, the outskirts are raised to 2000-2500 meters, and in some places even above 3000 meters. Plateaus with fragments of leveling surfaces of different ages are formed on the ledges of the ancient crystalline basement. Within the vast Karoo syneclise, an inversion relief is common: on a thick layer of sedimentary deposits (the Karoo formation - up to 7 km), a system of plateaus is formed - Big, Middle, Low, Shrub Veldy, Upper Karoo, etc. These plateaus and plateaus break off to narrow coastal lowlands and to the Great Karru plateau, forming the so-called Great Ledge. It is dissected by tectonic cracks and erosion. The highest part of the Great Ledge is the Dragon Mountains, which in the south - in the Basuto Highlands reach a height of more than 3000 m, the peak is the city of Thabana-Ntlenyana (3482 meters). The highlands are composed of sedimentary rocks overlain by basaltic lavas. From the outskirts of the plateaus and plateaus descend in steps to the flat bottoms of the basins, where alluvial and ancient lacustrine deposits lie from the surface.

The climate of the region is tropical. Precipitation varies from east to west.

The eastern regions are under the influence of the trade wind flow from the Indian Ocean, which, rising along the slopes of mountains and plateaus, gives abundant precipitation (1000-1500 mm per year). In winter, this flow weakens and is quite often replaced by winds coming from the continent, from the subtropical high pressure zone. The Indian trade wind descends into the basins, and the annual precipitation already on the velds drops to 500-600 mm, and in the basins of the Upper Zambezi and Kalahari - to 300 mm or less. However, in the west of the Kalahari, in the intertropical convergence zone, a front is formed between tropical air masses coming from k with different properties. warm and humid from the Indian Ocean, colder from the Atlantic, as it comes from high latitudes. On the western coast, a typical climate of the western coasts of the continents of the tropical zone is formed.

The South African plateaus and tablelands are drained by several major rivers- Zambezi, Limpopo, Orange, Okavango. All of them have an uneven runoff regime with a summer maximum, and rapids.

On the river Zambezi is widely known for one of the largest waterfalls - Victoria. rivers here fall from a height of 120 meters into a narrow tectonic crack. The Okavango River and some other smaller rivers end in the central parts of the basins, getting lost in swamps or sands.

The soil and vegetation cover changes from east to west in accordance with changes in moisture conditions.

On the Mozambique lowlands, the eastern slopes and in the northern part of the region on the border with Central (Equatorial) Africa, evergreen seasonally humid tropical forests grow with an abundance of palm trees. On the slopes of the Great Ledge above 800-1000 meters, bushes and meadows are widespread. Veldy (which means “steppe” in Dutch) is occupied by xerophytic shrub formations (aloe, spurge, acacia) and mountain steppes with a predominance of temedy. On the Matabele plateau, sparse deciduous forests grow on brown-red soils in combination with savannahs of predominantly anthropogenic origin. The northern part of the central basins is dominated by sparse savanna forests of brachistegia and isoberinia with dense undergrowth. Brown-red soils form under them. South of the river Zambezi on the bottoms of the basins swamps and salt marshes are formed, which, as a rule, occupy the place of dried lakes. The southern part of the Kalahari is a dry shrub savannah (bush) and woodlands, the southwest of the region is a real desert with ridge sands and limestone outcrops. Usually the sands are fixed by succulent and thorny shrubs. Large spaces are covered with creeping lashes of wild watermelons. Lots of ephemera. The vegetation of the western marginal plateaus and plateaus is even more arid. The northern part of the Namib is a combination of rubble and sandy areas with sparse vegetation of thorny shrubs and succulents. Among them, sometimes there is a wonderful plant - velvichia with two long (up to 2 meters) leathery leaves that can absorb moisture from the air. Vegetation is denser in the south.

The soils of the eastern and northern plateaus and plateaus of South Africa are fertile, the velds with their herbaceous vegetation are excellent pastures. The land is intensively used. Continuous plowing and excessive grazing lead to increased linear and planar erosion and land degradation.

South Africa is rich in minerals. The Karoo formation contains large reserves of hard coal, platform basement structures and ancient syneclises - deposits of various ores and gold. Diamonds and garnets are mined in explosion tubes filled with kimberlite. Gold and diamonds are also found in alluvial deposits. Large reserves of gold are contained in conglomerates formed from the alluvium of the Paleozoic rivers. In the famous Witwatersrand deposit in deep mines (up to 1500 meters deep), gold and uranium ores are mined from such deposits under very difficult conditions.

The region was mastered economically mainly by the Dutch (Boers) and English settlers. Until recently, the indigenous black population in the Republic of South Africa was deprived of rights and was mercilessly oppressed. Now the dark-skinned inhabitants of the region (mostly Hottentots) have received political rights, but the consequences of racial discrimination complicate the situation in South Africa to this day.

A number of national parks and reserves have been created in the region to preserve the unique fauna and landscapes. Namib Desert, Etosha and Skeleton Coast (“Skeleton Coast”) in Namibia, Royal Natal in South Africa and some others have existed as protected areas since the beginning of the 20th century, while Kruger Park and the St. Lucia faunal reserve (South Africa) function as nature reserves since the 90s of the XIX century.

cape mountains

The physical and geographical country of the Cape Mountains occupies the extreme south of the African continent in a subtropical climate. It is smaller than others in area, but has very peculiar natural conditions. From the west, the region is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean with a cold Benguela current, and in the east and south by the waters of the Indian Ocean with a warm Mozambique current, passing into Agulhas (Cape of Needles). In the north, the border with the South African plateaus and plateaus runs along the foot of the Great Escarpment. The entire physical and geographical country is within the boundaries of South Africa.

The Cape Mountains arose as a result of the rejuvenation of the Hercynian folded structures. Ranges parallel to each other - anticlines, raised by neotectonic movements, are separated by intermountain valleys - synclines. Transverse gorges of tectonic and erosional origin divide the ridges into short segments. In the very south, among the coastal plain, low isolated massifs and ridges rise.

The region is located in the area of ​​subtropical climate, in the west - Mediterranean type with winter cyclonic precipitation.

It differs from the typical Mediterranean climate and North Africa by low summer temperatures, which is associated with the dominance of air masses coming from the south in the summer season. In the eastern part of the Cape, precipitation is distributed more evenly over the seasons.

In winter, there are fewer of them here than in the west, since the western air transfer of temperate latitudes dominates, but in summer, rains of orographic origin fall from air masses coming from the Indian Ocean, which also pass over the warm Mozambique Current. The climate in the east of the region is rather maritime with a uniform distribution of moisture and small temperature amplitudes. In the interior valleys, the climate is arid with continental features.

Cape flora in appearance resembles the Mediterranean. Xerophytic shrubs on brown soils (fynbosh) are similar to maquis in structure and ecological features, but differ greatly from it in species composition. Protea, heather, legumes predominate, represented, as a rule, by endemic species.

Lots of bulbous and rhizomatous brightly flowering herbs. Many of them are cultivated all over the world as ornamental and indoor plants (gladiolus, daffodils, hyacinths, amaryllis, cineraria, geraniums, etc.). On the slopes facing the oceans, in some places small forests of pines and podocarpus have been preserved. There are more forests in the east.

In the Cape region, subtropical crops are grown on all lands suitable for cultivation: grapes, olives, figs, fruit trees and shrubs. Almost no natural vegetation has been preserved.

In the region there are four national parks and three provincial reserves where rare plants and animals are protected. Some of them were created in the 30s. 20th century

Madagascar

This peculiar physical and geographical country lies on one of largest islands Earth (596 thousand km 2). Until now, its nature keeps the memory of the ancient past of the planet - the rarest species of plants and animals have been preserved there, and scientists are still discovering new species. Significant endemicity of flora and fauna is explained by the long (from the Neogene) isolation of the island from the mainland. The Mozambique Channel is up to 400 km wide. Madagascar is a block that broke away from the African platform at the end of the Paleozoic, inclined towards the strait. The island is elongated in the submeridional direction for 1600 km from 12° to 26° S. sh. The nature of Madagascar has truly unique features.

On a small island compared to the mainland physiographic countries of South Africa, a significant variety of surface structure is observed.

The main tectonic structures of the Madagascar block are elongated, like the entire region, from north to south and successively replace each other. In the east, about 1/3 of the territory of the island is occupied by the Madagascar (Malgash) massif - an uplift, within which a crystalline platform foundation comes to the surface. In the southern half, igneous rocks have undergone significant metamorphism. Gneisses with granite intrusions, quartzites, and marbles are common here. The second petrographic zone is graphite, the most widely represented and variegated in composition: graphites, mica schists, gneisses, etc. The third zone occurs in small areas throughout the massif. These are sedimentary rocks of varying degrees of metamorphism: granitoids, crystalline schists, ferruginous quartzites. The massif has undergone significant fragmentation, accompanied by volcanic processes. Within its boundaries, the Central Highlands (High Plateau) 800-1800 meters high were formed, broken by faults into separate massifs with flat-bottomed depressions and valleys between them. In the north, the Tsaratanana basalt massif rises from highest point islands (2876 meters), there are other extinct ones. The process of fragmentation of the block was most active at the beginning of the Cenozoic. Until now, earthquakes are not uncommon, there are many thermal springs. At the eastern foot of the High Plateau stretches a narrow (10-20 km) low-lying accumulative plain, composed of marine sediments, including limestone with manifestations of tropical karst. From the west, within the border of the Mozambique tectonic trough, lower stratal plateaus (up to 800 meters) adjoin the Central Highlands. On the west coast are rolling lowlands.

Most of Madagascar is located in a tropical climate zone with trade wind circulation. Only the northwest is under the influence of the equatorial monsoons. The climate is hot on the plains.

Average monthly temperatures range from 13-20°C in winter to 26-30°C in summer. The course of the isotherms is generally submeridional. On the High Plateau, the climate is cool (from 13°С to 20°С). Since the island is under the influence of the trade wind from the Indian Ocean for almost the entire year, the annual precipitation decreases from east to west - from 2000-3000 mm to 500-600 mm and even 400 mm in the extreme southwest. The windward slopes of the highlands are most evenly and abundantly moistened. More precipitation occurs in summer, and in the north-west the dry season is well expressed in winter, which is typical for the trade wind circulation.

The climate and relief of Madagascar contribute to the development of a dense river network. The rivers of the eastern slopes are full-flowing, short, turbulent, rapids, while those of the western slopes are longer, but less watery. They carry a lot of solid material onto the plains, forming numerous shallows. On the flat bottoms of the intermountain valleys there are lakes and wetlands.

Vegetation is distributed depending on the moisture conditions.

In the past, the windward eastern slopes of the mountains and the coastal lowlands were covered with evergreen forests, under which red-yellow ferralitic soils have formed. Forests have been preserved only in separate arrays. The High Plateau is dominated by secondary grass savannas with thorny shrubs on mountain red and red-brown soils formed on ferralitic weathering crust. Dark red and black fertile soils are developed within the lava covers. On the western plains, under dry shrubbery, the soils are brown and red-brown. The most arid southwest is occupied by semi-desert and desert vegetation with candelabra-like spurges and thorny bushes. On the low-lying west coast, mangroves are common. The vegetation cover of the island is heavily modified by man.

The flora and fauna of Madagascar are unique.

In its forests there are common species with Asian ones (some ferns, Asteraceae, legumes), but of the 6765 species of angiosperms known here, 89% are endemic. Since the Miocene, the island has been completely isolated from neighboring land. The most famous endemics of Madagascar are: Ravenala - a "tree of travelers" from bananas (another species of this genus lives in South America), angrecum orchid with flowers up to 25 cm in diameter, royal piytsiana - “forest flame” with fiery red flowers, etc. No less unique animal world. Madagascar is sometimes called Lemuria. Indeed, only here many species of lemurs from primates live: indri with large eyes and a five-fingered paw, feline, brown, dwarf and other lemurs. Only within the limits of Madagascar and the nearby Comoros, representatives of about 20 species of the relic family of tenrecs (“bristled hedgehogs”) from insectivores have been preserved. Carnivores are represented by viverras. There are many reptiles (only 50 species of chameleons), birds, almost half of which are endemic. The island has a large number of insects, including colorful butterflies. Both in terms of flora and fauna, Madagascar is divided into separate sub-regions of the corresponding regions - they differ in such original features.

About 9 million people live on the territory of the island within the Malagasy Republic, the vast majority of which are indigenous people, closer in anthropological type, language and culture to the peoples of Southeast Asia than to the people of Africa. 3/4 of the territory of Madagascar has a climate that is very favorable for human life and for agriculture. Good moisture in many areas of the island, an abundance of heat, and the presence of fertile soils create excellent conditions for growing many valuable tropical crops. Significant areas are occupied by rice crops. Cattle breeding is also developed (the main livestock is zebu, but other breeds are also bred). There are no tsetse flies on the island, which is important for this branch of the economy.

The island is well provided with other types of natural resources: water, including hydropower in the east of the region, mineral (there are large deposits of mica, graphite, uranium, chromite, nickel, lead ores, gold, precious and semi-precious stones, etc.). Madagascar occupies the first place in the world in terms of amethyst reserves from pale lilac to deep purple hues. Amethyst druses are often found in rock heaps after mining ores. Forest wealth has largely suffered as a result of irrational management. Now only 10% of the island's area is occupied by forests. Exterminated forests that had stocks of valuable timber and other resources.

Natural complexes are strongly changed by human activities. Many unique species of plants and animals have disappeared or are on the verge of extinction. Many of their habitats have been destroyed. Some animals were simply exterminated by man: large lemurs, giant tortoises, flightless birds - akin to ostriches and moa epiornis, vurupatra, etc. Colorful butterflies are disappearing. To protect the still remaining unique flora and fauna, a number of reserves were created (mainly in the 20s of the XX century), there are 2 national parks, several reserves.