Linear move. Achievements of the Soviet engineering school: the rocket ship

03.12.2021

Question:

What regulatory literature can be used to determine whether the designed engineering networks (heat networks) are a linear capital construction object or an industrial and non-industrial capital construction object? (What affects the stage "P" according to the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 16.02.

Linear object definition town planning code

Answer:

Rationale:

Grusha G.A.,

REGULATIONS on the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content

III. The composition of sections of design documentation for linear capital construction facilities and the requirements for the content of these sections

Section 3 "Technological and design solutions for a linear facility.
What is a line object

Artificial constructions"

36. Section 3 "Technological and constructive solutions of a linear object. Artificial structures" must contain:

in the text part

a) information on topographic, engineering-geological, hydrogeological, meteorological and climatic conditions the site where the construction of the linear facility will be carried out;

b) information about special natural and climatic conditions land plot, provided for the placement of a linear object (seismicity, frozen soils, hazardous geological processes, etc.);

c) information about the strength and deformation characteristics of the soil at the base of the linear object;

d) information about the level of groundwater, their chemical composition, aggressiveness in relation to the materials of products and structures of the underground part of the linear facility;

f) information about the design capacity (carrying capacity, freight turnover, traffic intensity, etc.) of the linear facility;

g) indicators and characteristics of technological equipment and devices of a linear facility (including reliability, stability, efficiency, the possibility of automatic control, minimal emissions (discharges) of pollutants, compactness, use of the latest technologies);

h) a list of energy saving measures;

i) justification of the number and types of equipment, including lifting equipment, Vehicle and mechanisms used in the process of construction of a linear facility;

j) information on the number and professional qualifications of personnel with distribution by groups of production processes, the number and equipment of workplaces;

k) a list of measures to ensure compliance with labor protection requirements during the operation of a linear facility;

l) justification of the automated process control systems adopted in the design documentation, automatic systems to prevent violations of the stability and quality of the linear facility;

m) description of decisions on the organization of repair facilities, its equipment;

n) substantiation of technical solutions for construction in difficult engineering and geological conditions (if necessary);

o) for motor roads - the documents specified in subparagraphs "a" - "o" of this paragraph, as well as:

information about the main parameters and characteristics of the subgrade, including the accepted profiles of the subgrade, the width of the main platform, the length of the subgrade in embankments and cuts, minimum height embankments, depth of excavations;

substantiation of requirements for backfill soils (humidity and granulometric composition);

substantiation of the required density of the soil of the embankment and the values of the compaction coefficients for various types of soil;

calculation of the volume of earthworks;

a description of the accepted methods for the removal of surface water entering the subgrade;

a description of the types of structures and a list of road surfaces;

description of the structures of the upper structure of the railway track at the intersection with highways (if necessary);

description of design solutions for anti-deformation structures of the subgrade;

substantiation of types and design solutions of artificial structures (bridges, pipes, overpasses, flyovers, interchanges, pedestrian bridges, underground passages, cattle passes, retaining walls, etc.);

description of the structural scheme of artificial structures, materials and products used (foundations, supports, superstructures, coastal junctions, slope fastening);

substantiation of the dimensions of the openings of artificial structures that ensure the passage of water;

a list of artificial structures indicating their main characteristics and parameters (quantity, length, design scheme, costs of prefabricated and monolithic reinforced concrete, concrete, metal);

description of schemes of bridges, overpasses, schemes of bridge supports (if necessary), schemes of interchanges at different levels;

information about the ways of crossing a linear object;

information about the transport and operational condition, the level of accidents of the highway - for reconstructed (subject to major repairs) highways;

p) for railways - the documents and information specified in subparagraphs "a" - "o" of this paragraph, as well as:

a list of measures to protect the route from snow drifts and animals getting on them;

description of the structures of the upper structure of the railway track, including at the intersection with highways;

substantiation of the main parameters of the designed railway line (guiding slope, type of traction, location of separate points and sections of traction service, number of main tracks; specialization, number and useful length of receiving and departure tracks; power supply of electrified lines and locations of traction substations);

data on the estimated number of rolling stock;

information on the designed and (or) reconstructed objects of the locomotive and wagon economy (locations and service areas of locomotive crews; depot locations, their capacity in terms of the number and types of services, assigned locomotive fleet, justification for the sufficiency of locomotive facilities and the fleet of locomotives; assessment of the sufficiency wagon facilities maintenance devices; designed wagon facilities, their characteristics);

description of the designed traction service scheme;

substantiation of the need for operational personnel;

description and requirements for the places of accommodation of personnel, equipment of workplaces, sanitary and domestic provision of personnel involved in construction;

c) for communication lines - documents and information specified in subparagraphs "a" - "o" of this paragraph, as well as:

information about the possibility of icing of wires and a list of anti-icing measures;

description of the types and sizes of posts (intermediate, corner, transitional, terminal), structures of supports for mast crossings through water barriers;

description of the structures of foundations, supports, lightning protection systems, as well as measures to protect structures from corrosion;

description of technical solutions that ensure the connection of the designed communication line to the public communication network;

justification for the construction of new or use of existing communication facilities to pass the traffic of the designed communication network, technical parameters at the connection points of communication networks (signal level, signal spectra, transmission speeds, etc.);

justification of adopted signaling systems;

justification of the switching equipment used, which allows accounting of outgoing traffic at all levels of connection;

r) for main pipelines - the documents and information specified in subparagraphs "a" - "o" of this paragraph, as well as:

description of the technology of the product transportation process;

information about the design capacity of the pipeline for the movement of the product - for oil pipelines;

characteristics of pipeline parameters;

justification of the pipeline diameter;

information about the working pressure and the maximum allowable working pressure;

description of the operation system of control valves;

substantiation of the need to use antifriction additives;

substantiation of pipe wall thickness depending on the operating pressure drop along the length of the pipeline and operating conditions;

substantiation of places for installation of stop valves, taking into account the terrain, crossed natural and artificial barriers and other factors;

information about the reserve capacity of the pipeline and reserve equipment and the potential need for them;

substantiation of the choice of technology for transporting products based on a comparative analysis (economic, technical, environmental) of other existing technologies;

justification of the selected quantity and quality of the main and auxiliary equipment, including valves, its technical characteristics, as well as equipment control methods;

information on the number of jobs and their equipment, including the number of emergency support teams and drivers of special vehicles;

information on the consumption of fuel, electricity, water and other materials for technological needs;

description of the process control system (if there is a process);

description of the system for diagnosing the state of the pipeline;

a list of measures to protect the pipeline from a decrease (increase) in the temperature of the product above (below) the permissible one;

description of the type, composition and volume of waste to be disposed of and buried;

information on the classification of waste toxicity, places and methods of their disposal in accordance with the established specifications;

description of the system for reducing the level of toxic emissions, discharges, a list of measures to prevent accidental emissions (discharges);

assessment of possible emergencies;

information about hazardous areas along the pipeline route and justification for choosing the size of protection zones;

a list of design and organizational measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents, including a plan for the prevention and elimination of accidental spills of oil and oil products (if necessary);

description of design solutions for the passage of the pipeline route (crossing water barriers, swamps, crossing transport communications, laying the pipeline in mountainous areas and in areas exposed to hazardous geological processes);

justification of the safe distance from the axis of the main pipeline to settlements, engineering structures (bridges, roads), as well as during the parallel passage of the main pipeline with the indicated objects and pipelines similar in functional purpose;

substantiation of the reliability and stability of the pipeline and its individual elements;

information about the loads and impacts on the pipeline;

information about the accepted design combinations of loads;

information about the reliability factors adopted for calculation by material, by pipeline purpose, by load, by soil and other parameters;

the main physical characteristics of steel pipes taken for calculation;

substantiation of requirements for overall dimensions pipes, permissible deviations of the outer diameter, ovality, curvature, design data confirming the strength and stability of the pipeline;

justification of the spatial rigidity of structures (during transportation, installation (construction) and operation);

description and justification of classes and grades of concrete and steel used in construction;

description of design solutions for strengthening foundations and strengthening structures when laying pipelines along a route with slopes steeper than 15 degrees;

substantiation of the depth of the pipeline in individual sections;

description of constructive solutions when laying a pipeline in flooded areas, in areas of swamps, areas where scree, landslides are observed, areas subject to erosion, when crossing steep slopes, gullies, as well as when crossing small and medium-sized rivers;

description of the fundamental design solutions for balancing the pipeline pipe with the use of female weighting agents (set weight, installation step and other parameters);

substantiation of the selected locations for the installation of signal signs on the banks of reservoirs, rafting rivers and other water bodies;

in the graphic part

s) a diagram of a linear facility with designation of installation sites for process equipment (if any);

t) drawings of structural solutions for load-bearing structures and individual support elements described in the explanatory note;

x) drawings of the main elements of artificial structures, structures;

c) schemes for fastening structural elements;

w) for motor roads - diagrams and drawings specified in subparagraphs "y" - "c" of this paragraph, as well as:

drawings of characteristic profiles of embankments and cuts, pavement structures;

w) for railways - diagrams and drawings specified in subparagraphs "y" - "c" of this paragraph, as well as:

drawings of the characteristic profiles of the embankment and recesses, the superstructure of the track;

drawings of individual subgrade profiles;

cargo flow diagram (if necessary);

plans of junctions, stations and other separate points indicating capital construction projects, structures and arrangements of the railway infrastructure;

y) for communication networks - diagrams and drawings specified in subparagraphs "y" - "c" of this paragraph, as well as:

schemes for arranging cable crossings through railways and automobile (highway, dirt) roads, as well as through water barriers;

schemes for fastening supports and masts with guys;

diagrams of transition nodes from the underground line to the overhead line;

layout diagrams of communication equipment at a linear facility;

clock network synchronization schemes linked to the clock network synchronization scheme of the public network - for communication networks connected to the public communication network and using digital technology for switching and transmitting information;

e) for main pipelines - diagrams and drawings specified in subparagraphs "y" - "c" of this paragraph, as well as:

schemes of arrangement of the main and auxiliary equipment;

route diagrams indicating the installation locations of valves, launching and receiving units of ball separators (purifiers);

process control schemes and their control;

load combination schemes;

schematic diagrams of an automated process control system at a linear facility.

Engineering and technical networks that provide two or more capital construction projects are a linear facility

Question:

What are line features?

Answer:

Engineering and technical networks that provide two or more capital construction objects (i.e., functionally not related to separate capital construction objects) are considered as a separate linear object.

Rationale:

The current legislation on urban planning does not contain a definition of the term "linear object".

All known definitions of this concept are formed on the basis of the definition of the concept of "red lines" given in Article 1 (paragraph 11) of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

The Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation, in accordance with paragraph 2 of Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of February 16, 2008 N 87, was authorized until June 14, 2014 to give clarifications on the procedure for applying the "Regulations on the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content" (hereinafter - "Regulations ..." .

In the letter of the Ministry of Regional Development of Russia dated May 20, 2011 N 13137-IP / 08 "On the state examination of project documentation for the construction, reconstruction and overhaul of engineering and technical support networks", a legal position was formulated that is applicable to the situation described in the question:

In accordance with the Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation, linear facilities include power lines, communication lines (including line-cable structures), pipelines, car roads, railway lines and other similar structures located within the red lines - lines that indicate the existing, planned (changeable, newly formed) boundaries of common areas, boundaries of land plots ...

According to the Ministry of Regional Development of Russia, in the case of construction, reconstruction, overhaul of engineering and technical support networks that are functionally part of a separate capital construction facility that go beyond the boundaries of the land plot allocated for the specified purposes, and at the same time do not go beyond the element of the planning structure ( quarter, microdistrict), information about such networks is also included in section 5 of the project documentation. Engineering and technical networks that provide two or more capital construction facilities are considered as a separate linear facility, which includes a quarterly gas pipeline and other linear facilities (water supply, sewerage, line-cable communication facilities, etc.).

In view of the foregoing, the design documentation for engineering and technical support networks that are not functionally related to individual capital construction projects is subject to state expertise as design documentation for linear facilities. Project documentation for the construction, reconstruction and overhaul of utility networks that are not linear facilities and are part of the capital construction facility (section 5 of the design documentation) is subject to state expertise only if the design documentation for the facility itself is subject to state expertise .

This position of the Ministry of Regional Development of Russia remains in force, since the Ministry of Construction of Russia, which, in accordance with Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of March 26, 2014 N 230, has been delegated the authority to provide clarifications on the procedure for applying the "Regulations on the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content", a different position on this the question was not formed.

Grusha G.A.,

professional support line expert

This material is a response to a private request and may no longer be relevant due to changes in legislation.

On Thursday, October 11, the State Duma Committee on Natural Resources, Property and Land Relations held a meeting with representatives of the Ministry of Natural Resources, the Federal Property Management Agency, the Federal Forestry Agency and the Federal Antimonopoly Service on the sale of wood, which is formed during the construction of power lines, pipelines and other linear facilities, as well as the development of mineral deposits. fossils on the lands of the forest fund.

According to Nikolay Nikolaev, head of the relevant Duma committee, the need to discuss this issue is caused by problems associated with the sale of such timber.

Capital construction: features and characteristics

They consist in the lack of demand for it due to the remoteness, inaccessibility of forest areas and the high cost of transportation, as well as the duration of the existing procedure for selling such wood, which leads to its deterioration. In addition, there is no mechanism for determining responsibility for the amount of wood and its further preservation. As a result, unsold wood remains on forest plots, which also leads to violations of sanitary and fire safety rules in forests.

"Companies receive permission from the state to cut down this forest, because they are laying pipelines, electricity networks. With the existing model for disposing of the received wood, in fact only 1/3 is sold. 60-70 percent of the wood, and this is state property, remains to simply rot. We are losing timber worth more than 500 million rubles a year. Perhaps there are options to solve the problem so as to oblige those who cut it to buy cut wood. If you have received a permit for the construction of the facility, buy the wood cut down during construction from the state.

These issues of forest use are regulated by articles 44-46 of the Forest Code of the Russian Federation. Ownership of wood that is cut down during the construction of linear facilities and the development of mineral deposits on the lands of the forest fund belongs to Russian Federation. Authorized to sell such wood is the Federal Property Management Agency, which organizes auctions for the sale of wood and concludes sales contracts with their winners. However, the volume of wood sold by the Federal Property Management Agency is incomparably less than the wood harvested as part of the use of forests in accordance with the indicated articles of the Forest Code.

As a result of the meeting, it was decided to submit the problem for a more detailed discussion at a meeting of the relevant Duma committee. Nikolaev also asked the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Federal Property Management Agency for data on the volumes of cut and sold timber, and from representatives of the timber companies who took part in the meeting to send their proposals to solve this problem.

Geodetic grid

To ensure engineering and geodetic work, reference networks are created that serve as the basis for the production of topographic surveys during surveys; to perform various works on the territory of cities and towns; to perform marking work during the construction of buildings and structures, etc.

Engineering geodetic planned and high-altitude reference networks are a system of geometric figures, the tops of which are fixed on the ground with special signs and are created in accordance with the project for the production of geodetic works (PPGR).

Engineering and geodetic networks have a number of characteristic features:

- networks are often created in a conditional coordinate system with reference to the state coordinate system;

- the shape of the network depends on the size of the service area or the shape of the object;

— networks have limited dimensions;

- the lengths of the sides are usually short;

— increased requirements for stability in difficult operating conditions are imposed on network points;

— Observation conditions are usually unfavorable.

The choice of the type of construction of reference networks depends on the type of object, its shape and the occupied area; network assignments; physical and geographical conditions; required accuracy; availability of measuring instruments. triangulation used as an initial building on objects of considerable area or length in open rough terrain; polygonometry u - in a closed area or built-up area; linear-angular construction - if it is necessary to create networks of increased accuracy; trilateration - usually on small objects where high accuracy is required; building nets - at industrial sites.

High-altitude reference networks are created by the method geometric leveling in the form of single passages or systems of passages and polygons laid between the original benchmarks. When using electronic total stations, trigonometric leveling is performed.

Features of the design and transfer to nature of planning and development projects for rural settlements

Topographic and geodetic works carried out in the territories of settlements and rural settlements consist of: large-scale surveys 1:500-1:5000; drawing up a topographical basis in the form of plans, maps and profiles for the development of planning and development projects (reconstruction, expansion) of settlements and rural settlements.

The main method of drawing up plans is aerial photography. Ground-based methods are used only when surveying at a scale of 1:500 and 1:1000, and also, if the use of aerial photography is inappropriate, at a scale of 1:2000 and 1:5000. In cases where a lesser graphic accuracy of the plan is required than is provided for plans of scales 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000 and 1:5000, then plans of these scales can be obtained by increasing the plans of scales 1:1000, 1, respectively: 2000, 1:5000 and 1:10000.

The scale of topographic plans depends on the requirements for the accuracy of design and survey work, the design stage, and the density of the contours of the situation on the ground. The choice of the height of the relief section depends on the accuracy of the upcoming planning of the territory, the slopes of the terrain.

The basis for the development of master plans for populated areas, the preparation of projects for on-farm land management, forest management, the selection and allotment of land plots in accordance with the established procedure for various needs, and the choice of routes is the regional planning project. It consists of graphic (project plan - the main drawing to scale

1:25,000 – 1:100,000) and text materials. The regional planning project determines the location and volume of housing, cultural and household, industrial, reclamation construction, etc.

For the planning and development of rural settlements, territories with a relief with slopes of 0.5 - 5% are most suitable.

In the process of engineering and geodetic surveys, a master plan is prepared - a large-scale topographic plan of a village, a rural settlement, which depicts the entire complex of ground, air and underground structures for an estimated period of 20 years, in accordance with the regional planning project.

For settlements and rural settlements, master plans are developed combined with detailed planning projects, in which the projected red lines of residential and public buildings, green spaces, homestead and apartment plots, household outbuildings of personal subsidiary plots, utility driveways, livestock passes are applied to the plan.

Drawing up planning projects for rural settlements consists in placing various objects on the project plan: residential, industrial and other zones; and within these zones - quarters and plots, public buildings, industrial buildings, streets, squares in accordance with economic, sanitary-hygienic, architectural and technical requirements and taking into account natural conditions. Each object on the project plan is limited by straight lines, parallel or intersecting at given angles, as well as curved lines of certain radii.

Methods for designing planning objects and designing crop rotation arrays, fields and plots in the preparation of land management projects have similarities and differences. The similarity lies in the fact that the design in both cases is carried out according to the principle from the general to the particular. First, large arrays, zones are placed, then inside them - small areas, fields, quarters. When designing, they are guided by economic, technical and geometric conditions. The difference lies in the fact that when designing fields, they are guided by the given areas and directions of lines (angles), and when designing planning objects, they are guided by the directions of lines, areas of plots, their linear dimensions and the rules of architectural and planning composition.

When drawing up planning projects, mainly graphic and graph-analytical design methods are used.

Planning projects for rural settlements are transferred to nature by the same methods as land management projects. The peculiarity of transferring the planning project to nature is that during the office preparation of the layout drawing and during field work, it is required to maintain the parallelism of the sides of streets and driveways, the shape and size of residential and industrial complexes, and to ensure reliable fixing of design points in nature. Therefore, the transfer of the project, as well as the design, is carried out in a strict sequence from the general to the particular, i.e. transferring first main points of the project, then the tops of sections of microdistricts or blocks, then the boundaries of smaller sections in microdistricts or blocks, then places for the construction of buildings, and finally the details of the planning elements.

The choice of the method of transferring the project to nature and the order of work depends on the availability of points of the geodetic network and their density. The denser the points of the geodetic network are located, the easier and faster it is possible to transfer the project to nature. In this case, the following methods can be applied: polar, perpendiculars, measurements along the alignment, linear and angular serifs, design theodolite traverse.

Design of linear objects

Linear structures according to their location can be divided into ground: railways and roads, tram tracks; underground (pipelines): water supply, gas pipeline, etc.; overground (air): Power lines, communication lines, etc.

The main task of designing linear structures is to choose the optimal position of the route line on the ground. The selected option should provide for a balance in the volume of earthworks, fit well into the existing situation, ensuring the least environmental disturbance.

Chapter 3. Features of creating certain types of objects

When designing, technical conditions must be taken into account, which depend on the purpose of the future structure. The main part of these tasks is solved by cameral and field tracing. After choosing the main variant in a cameral way and performing field tracing, they make up the longitudinal and transverse profiles of the terrain, and proceed to design the line of the route in height.

The design profile of a linear structure is developed in accordance with the technical conditions, economic requirements and features of its operation in the design of roads and railways, the main attention is paid to ensuring smooth and safe movement at a given maximum speed. The slope of the design line should not exceed the limit value

and the radius of the vertical curve be less than the allowable value

When designing underground pipelines, the slope of the profile must ensure the movement of fluid in pipes at a certain speed, excluding sedimentation of suspended particles at minimum slopes imin and abrasion of pipes by sand and solid particles at maximum slopes imax, i.e.

Currently, the design of linear structures is carried out on a computer

Definition of the term "linear object", referring it to real estate objects. The need to introduce the concept of a linear object into the Urban Planning Code based on the analysis of regulatory legal acts. Placement of objects on the land.

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration under the President of the Russian Federation (Volgograd branch)

Department of Constitutional and Administrative Law

Line features: concept and types

undergraduate Shmakova Darina Andreevna

annotation

The article deals with topical issues that arise when defining the concept of "linear object" and referring it to real estate objects. Based on the analysis of regulatory legal acts, it is concluded that it is necessary to introduce the definition of “linear object” into the Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation, which will streamline the procedures for placing linear objects on a land plot.

Keywords: types of linear objects, linear object, real estate objects, legal regime of linear objects, length of the object

Abstract

The article deals with topical issues arising from the definition of "linear object" and its assignment to the objects of real estate. Based on the analysis of legal acts concluded on the need for the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation the definition of "linear object", which will streamline the procedure of placement of linear objects on the land.

In the current legislation, such a concept as a linear object is absent today. This concept can be revealed by using and listing various legal acts, since there is no clear and specific legal formulation of a linear object that names its types and features.

For example, in the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation and in the Federal Law “On the transfer of land or land plots from one category to another”, linear objects include power lines, communication lines, railway lines, roads, pipelines and other similar structures.

The Forest Code of the Russian Federation also reveals the concept of linear objects through the transfer of power lines, communications, roads, pipelines and other linear objects.

The same definition is contained in the order of Rosleskhoz dated June 10, 2011 No. No. 223 "On approval of the rules for the use of forests for the construction, reconstruction, operation of linear facilities."

A separate definition is given by the legislation of the fuel and energy complex. Linear objects are understood as a system of linearly extended objects of the fuel and energy complex, for example, oil pipelines, main gas pipelines, electrical networks.

Taking into account the concept of a linear object, which is contained in the Federal Law “On the transfer of land or land plots from one category to another” and in the Urban Planning Code, bridges, subways, tunnels, funiculars, etc. can also be attributed to linear objects.

If we consider the Federal Law "Technical Regulations on the Safety of Buildings and Structures", then it also gives concepts that can be used when defining a linear object:

1) engineering and technical support network - a set of pipelines, communications and other structures intended for engineering and technical support of buildings and structures;

2) engineering and technical support system - one of the systems of a building or structure designed to perform the functions of water supply, sewerage, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, gas supply, electricity supply, communications;

3) structure - the result of construction, which is a three-dimensional, planar or linear building system, which has ground, above-ground and (or) underground parts, consisting of load-bearing, and in some cases, enclosing building structures and designed to perform production processes of various types, storage products, temporary stay of people, movement of people and goods. linear object urban planning land

Another definition of a linear object is contained in the Regulations on the composition of sections of project documentation and the requirements for their content, where pipelines, roads, power lines, etc. are distinguished as linear objects.

But as can be seen from all these definitions, in fact, they are not definitions - they enumerate the types of linear objects.

Considering the foregoing, it is necessary to formulate a definition of a linear object, namely, to highlight its essential characteristics, which would unambiguously make it possible to separate structures from other objects.

Thus, taking into account all the enumerations of this concept, we can conclude that linear objects are linearly extended elements of the organization of the territory. These objects can be located on the land plot in the form of straight and curved lines, which are characterized by length, width, coordinates of the start and end points.

The concept of a linear object can also be defined, taking into account the following characteristics:

1) Significant length of the object - the length of the object exceeds its width;

2) A linear facility is a structure that is a three-dimensional, planar or linear construction system, including ground, above ground or underground, consisting of load-bearing and enclosing building structures;

3) Strong connection with the ground - above-ground, ground and underground types of linear objects. It is this characteristic that determines the need to classify linear objects depending on the connection with the ground;

4) The purpose of linear objects is transport communications, communication lines, oil pipelines, gas pipelines, electrical networks, water pipes, sewer and storm drains. Given the purpose of the objects, it is possible to classify linear objects depending on the design (pipelines, networks).

In addition, in various regulatory legal acts, the characteristics of linear structures are indicated using different definitions.

All these circumstances indicate the absence of a developed scheme of legal regulation of relations arising in relation to linear objects, leading to problems in determining the legal regime in practice.

All of the listed concepts of a linear object in various regulatory legal acts lead to the complexity of classifying a particular object as a linear object, which accordingly entails the application of an inappropriate legal regime for the use of a land plot to accommodate a linear object.

When determining the legal regime of linear objects, the question arises of classifying them as real estate objects.

The legislation does not directly define linear objects as real estate objects, as a result of which there are ambiguous judgments on this issue in judicial and legal practice.

Often, judicial practice in resolving disputes regarding complex objects is contradictory, because a linear object is characterized by differences in technical specifications constituent parts.

Thus, the courts believe that the railway track cannot be moved, since it will be a different track with different characteristics and purpose, and it is possible to move the cable line without prejudice to its purpose. However, the issue of classifying linear objects as real estate objects should not be in doubt.

Considering general concept real estate in the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation, it follows that the main criteria for classifying an object as real estate are a strong connection with the land and the impossibility of moving without disproportionate damage to its purpose. Linear objects meet these criteria, in addition, they are objects of capital construction, also taking into account the provisions of Article 1, paragraph 11 of the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation, it can be concluded that linear objects are immovable.

Based on the norms of civil law, the criterion for classifying a thing as an object of real estate is not the purpose of the object, but the physical property of the object - a strong connection with the earth. At the same time, the legislation does not limit the owner in determining the purpose of real estate and its role in the technological process.

Being one of the types of real estate objects, linear objects have a number of the following features:

- complex and indivisible things;

- significant length;

— location in the territory of more than one registration district.

At the same time, all linear facilities are subject to technical accounting, and transactions with them are subject to state registration.

Thus, in general terms, a linear object is a complex real estate object that has length characteristics and a certain production purpose.

Taking into account the specific features, the legislation has established the features of the legal regime for the use of land plots intended for the placement of linear facilities.

For example, in accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 78 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation, the use of agricultural land provided for the period of construction of linear facilities is carried out without transferring land to land of other categories.

At the same time, for the purpose of operating linear facilities, it is required to transfer the land plot to industrial and other special purpose lands.

Summing up, we can conclude that the main feature of a linear object is a dedicated land plot with a permitted type of use for the entire existence of this object, the owner of which must pay land tax.

In order to streamline the urban planning regulation of linear objects, their structure, commissioning, cadastral registration, it is necessary to include the definition of a linear object in the Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation.

After analyzing legal acts, we can give the following definition of linear objects - linear objects are a system of structures, including ground, above-ground or underground structural elements, the length of which significantly exceeds their width and which are designed to ensure the movement, movement and transfer of materials and substances in the interests of the state and local population.

Take into account the features of above-ground and underground structural elements, the placement and operation of which require constant use on the surface of the land plot within which they are located.

Further development of the legal regulation of the placement of linear objects and related land legal relations cannot do without the introduction of the concept of "linear object" into the legislation on urban planning. This introduction will allow avoiding a broad interpretation in practice and streamline the procedures for placing linear objects. Considering a large number of special laws that regulate relations related to the use of land for the placement of linear objects, this concept will also increase the level of legislation in various industries.

Bibliographic list

1. “Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation” dated December 29, 2004 N 190-FZ (as amended on December 30, 2015) (as amended and supplemented, effective from January 10, 2016).

2. Federal Law of December 21, 2004 N 172-FZ (as amended on April 20, 2015) “On the transfer of land or land plots from one category to another.”

3. “Forest Code of the Russian Federation” dated December 4, 2006 N 200-FZ (as amended on July 13, 2015, as amended on December 30, 2015) (as amended and supplemented, effective from January 1, 2016).

4. Order of Rosleskhoz dated 10.06.2011 N 223 “On approval of the Rules for the use of forests for the construction, reconstruction, operation of linear facilities” (Registered in the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation on 03.08.2011 N 21533).

5. Federal Law No. 256-FZ of July 21, 2011 (as amended on October 14, 2014) “On the Safety of Fuel and Energy Complex Facilities.”

6. Federal Law of December 30, 2009 N 384-FZ (as amended on July 2, 2013) “Technical Regulations on the Safety of Buildings and Structures”.

7. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of February 16, 2008 N 87 (as amended on January 23, 2016) “On the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content.”

8. Shuplevtsova Yu.I. Separate issues of using forest plots for the construction, reconstruction and operation of linear facilities// Property relations in the Russian Federation.2015.No.2.

9. Chernaya A.A. Linear objects: problems of correlation with auxiliary objects// TerraEconomikus, 2011, volume 9 No. 2.

10. Resolution of the FAS Northwestern District May 12, 2006 No. A56-22940/2005// SPS "Consultant"; Decree of the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the North-Western District of December 3, 2002 No. No. A56-19925/02// SPS "Consultant".

11. “Land Code of the Russian Federation” dated October 25, 2001 N 136-FZ (as amended on December 30, 2015) (as amended and supplemented, effective from January 1, 2016).

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How to legitimize a linear object

Features of the law and its main types. Significance of by-laws. The effect of normative legal acts in time, space and circle of persons.

term paper, added 05/07/2014

Responsibilities of a medical registrar in a polyclinic Limited fit for military service

2.2.2. Linear-angular stroke

2.2.2.1 Classification of linear-angular moves

Various methods can be applied to determine the coordinates of several points; the most common of them are the linear-angular move, the system of linear-angular moves, triangulation, trilateration, and some others.

The linear-angular course is a sequence of polar notches, in which horizontal angles and distances between adjacent points are measured (Fig. 2.17).

Fig.2.17. Scheme of linear-angular travel

The initial data in the linear-angular course are the coordinates XA, YA of point A and the directional angle αBA of the line BA, which is called the initial initial directional angle; this angle can be specified implicitly through the coordinates of point B.

The measured quantities are the horizontal angles β1, β2,..., βk-1, βk and the distances S1, S2, Sk-1, Sk. The angle measurement error mβ and the relative distance measurement error mS / S = 1 / T are also known.

The directional angles of the sides of the stroke are calculated sequentially according to the known formulas for the transmission of the directional angle through the angle of rotation

for left corners: (2.64)

for right corners: (2.65)

For the move in Fig. 2.17 we have:

etc.

The coordinates of the traverse points are obtained from the solution of the direct geodetic problem, first from point A to point 2, then from point 2 to point 3, and so on until the end of the turn.

The linear-angular stroke, shown in Fig. 2.17, is used very rarely, since there is no measurement control in it; in practice, as a rule, moves are used that provide for such control.

According to the form and completeness of the initial data, linear-angular moves are divided into the following types:

open traverse (Fig. 2.18): starting points with known coordinates and initial directional angles are at the beginning and at the end of the traverse;

Fig.2.18. Scheme of an open linear-angular stroke

If there is no initial directional angle at the beginning or end of the traverse, then it will be a traverse with partial coordinate reference; if there are no initial directional angles in the course at all, then it will be a move with full coordinate reference.

closed linear-angular course (Fig. 2.19) - the start and end points of the course are combined; one point of the move has known coordinates and is called the starting point; at this point there must be an initial direction with a known directional angle, and the adjoining angle between this direction and the direction to the second point of the move is measured.

Fig.2.19. Scheme of a closed linear-angular stroke

a hanging linear-angular course (Fig. 2.17) has a starting point with known coordinates and an initial directional angle only at the beginning of the course.

a free linear-angular move has no starting points and initial directional angles either at the beginning or at the end of the move.

According to the accuracy of measuring horizontal angles and distances, linear-angular traverses are divided into two large groups: theodolite traverses and polygonometric traverses.

In theodolite traverses, horizontal angles are measured with an error of no more than 30 "; the relative error in measuring distances mS / S ranges from 1/1000 to 1/3000.

In polygonometric traverses, horizontal angles are measured with an error from 0.4" to 10", and the relative error in measuring distances mS / S ranges from 1/5000 to 1/300,000. According to the measurement accuracy, polygonometric traverses are divided into two categories and four classes (see section 7.1).

2.2.2.2. Calculation of coordinates of points of an open linear-angular traverse

Each defined point of the linear-angular traverse has two coordinates X and Y, which are unknown and must be found. The total number of points in the course will be denoted by n, then the number of unknowns will be 2 * (n - 2), since the coordinates of two points (initial start and end) are known. To find 2 * (n - 2) unknowns, it is enough to perform 2 * (n - 2) measurements.

Let's calculate how many measurements are performed in an open linear-angular course: n angles are measured at n points - one at each point, (n - 1) sides of the course are also measured, in total (2 * n - 1) measurements are obtained (Fig. 2.18) .

The difference between the number of measurements taken and the number of measurements required is:

that is, three dimensions are redundant: the angle at the penultimate point of the move, the angle at the last point of the move, and the last side of the move. But nevertheless, these measurements are made, and they must be used when calculating the coordinates of the traverse points.

In geodetic constructions, each redundant measurement generates some condition, so the number of conditions is equal to the number of redundant measurements; in an open linear-angular course, three conditions must be met: the condition of directional angles and two coordinate conditions.

Condition of directional angles. We calculate sequentially the directional angles of all sides of the stroke, using the formula for transferring the directional angle to the next side of the stroke:

(2.66)

Let's add these equalities and get:

where
and (2.67)

This is a mathematical notation of the first geometric condition in an open linear-angular course. For right angles of rotation, it will be written as follows:

The sum of angles calculated by formulas (2.67) and (2.68) is called the theoretical sum of travel angles. The sum of the measured angles due to measurement errors, as a rule, differs from the theoretical sum by some amount, called the angular discrepancy and denoted by fβ:

(2.69)

The allowable value of the angular discrepancy can be considered as the marginal error of the sum of the measured angles:

We use the well-known formula from error theory to find the root mean square error of a function as a sum of arguments (Section 1.11.2):

At
we get
or (2.72)

After substituting (2.72) into (2.70), we get:

(2.73)

For theodolite traverses mβ = 30", therefore:

One of the adjustment stages is the introduction of corrections to the measured values in order to bring them into line with the geometric conditions. Let us denote the correction to the measured angle Vβ and write down the condition:

whence it follows that:

that is, the corrections to the angles should be chosen so that their sum is equal to the angular discrepancy with the opposite sign.

There are n unknowns in equation (2.75), and to solve it, it is necessary to impose additional conditions on the corrections Vβ (n-1); The simplest version of these conditions would be:

that is, all corrections to the measured angles are the same. In this case, the solution of equation (2.75) is obtained in the form:

this means that the angular discrepancy fβ is distributed with the opposite sign equally to all measured angles.

The corrected angle values are calculated by the formula:

(2.78)

According to the corrected angles of rotation, the directional angles of all sides of the course are calculated; the coincidence of the calculated and specified values of the final initial directional angle is the control of the correctness of the processing of angular measurements.

coordinate conditions. Solving successively the direct geodesic problem, we calculate the increments of coordinates along each side of the stroke ΔXi and ΔYi. The coordinates of the points of the move will be obtained by the formulas:

(2.79)

We add these equalities and obtain for the increments ΔXi:

After bringing similar ones, we have:

(2.80)

A similar formula for the sum of increments ΔY is:

(2.81)

We have obtained two more conditions (2.80) and (2.81), which are called coordinate conditions. The sums of the increments of coordinates calculated by these formulas are called the theoretical sums of the increments. Due to measurement errors of the sides and the simplified method of distributing the angular residual, the sums of the calculated increments of coordinates in the general case will not be equal to the theoretical sums; there are so-called coordinate residuals of the course:

(2.82)

which calculate the absolute discrepancy of the course:

(2.83)

and then the relative residual of the stroke:

(2.84)

The adjustment of increments ΔX and ΔY is performed as follows.

First, write down the sums of the corrected increments:

and equate them to the theoretical sums:

whence it follows that:

In these equations, there are (n - 1) unknowns and for their solution it is necessary to impose additional conditions on the corrections VX and VY. In practice, corrections to coordinate increments are calculated using the formulas:

(2.91)

which correspond to the condition "corrections to increments of coordinates are proportional to the lengths of the sides".

The considered method of processing measurements in a linear-angular course can be called the method of sequential distribution of residuals; strict adjustment of the linear-angular course is performed using the least squares method.

After adjusting a single linear-angular traverse, the errors in the position of its points are not the same; they increase from the beginning and end of the move to its middle, and the point in the middle of the move has the largest position error. In the case of approximate adjustment, this error is estimated by half of the absolute misclosure of the move fs. With a strict adjustment of the traverse, a complete assessment of the accuracy is performed, that is, errors in the position of each point of the traverse, errors in the directional angles of all sides of the traverse, as well as errors in the adjusted values of the angles and sides of the traverse are calculated.

2.2.2.3. Calculation of coordinates of points of a closed linear-angular traverse

The calculation of the coordinates of points in a closed linear-angular traverse is performed in the same order as in an open traverse; the difference lies in the calculation of the theoretical sums of angles and increments of coordinates. If internal angles were measured in a closed course, then;

if external, then

(2.92)

2.2.2.4. Binding of linear-angular moves

The binding of an open linear-angular move is understood as the inclusion in the move of two points with known coordinates (these are the initial and final starting points of the move) and the measurement at these points of the angles between the direction with a known directional angle (αbegin and αend) and the first (last) side of the move; these angles are called adjoining. As noted earlier, if the adjoining angle is not measured at the start and/or end point of the traverse, then partial (full) coordinate referencing of the traverse takes place.

The binding of a closed linear-angular move is the inclusion of one point with known coordinates in the move and the measurement of the adjoining angle at this point, that is, the angle between the direction with a known directional angle and the first side of the move.

In addition to these standard situations, there are cases when a linear-angular move begins or ends at a point with unknown coordinates. In such cases, there is an additional problem of determining the coordinates of this point.

The easiest way to determine the coordinates of one point is geodetic serifs; if there are several known points near the determined point, then by performing k angular and (or) linear measurements (k>2), you can calculate the required coordinates using standard algorithms. If this is not possible, then there are special cases of binding; let's look at some of them.

Demolition of coordinates from the top of the sign to the ground. On fig.2.20: P - determined point, T1, T2, T3 - points with known coordinates, which can be used only as target targets. From point P, only two angles can be measured with the resection program, which is not enough; in addition, when the distance between P and T1 is small, the notch angle is very small and the notch accuracy is not high. Set two time points A1 and A2 and measure distances b1 and b2 and angles β1, β2, β3, β4, β5, β6.

an approximate solution can be obtained by the final formulas given below:

calculating the distance s (s = T1P) two times: from triangles PA1T1 and PA2T2 and then the average of the two:

solution of the inverse geodesic problem between points T1 and T2 (calculation α12, L1) and T1 and T3 (calculation α13, L2),

calculation of angles μ1 and μ2 from triangles PT2T1 and PT3T1:

;

calculation of angles λ1 and λ2 from triangles PT2T1 and PT3T1:

calculation of the directional angle of the T1P line:

solution of a direct geodesic problem from point T to point P:

Binding of linear-angular travel to wall marks. Wall marks are laid in the basement or in the wall of a capital building; their designs are different and one of them is shown in Fig. 7.1-d (section 7.2). The laying of wall marks and the determination of their coordinates is carried out when creating geodetic networks on the territory of settlements and industrial enterprises; in the future, these marks play the role of reference points in subsequent geodetic constructions.

Binding of the linear-angular stroke can be made to two, three or more wall marks.

The scheme for binding the move to two marks A and B is shown in Fig. 2.21.

On the line AB, using a tape measure, the segment S is measured, and the coordinates of the point P are found from the solution of the direct geodesic problem using the formulas:

where α is the directional angle of the direction AB.

Fig.2.21 Fig.2.22

The binding scheme for three brands A, B, C is shown in Fig. 2.22. Using a tape measure, the distances S1, S2, S3 are measured and a multiple linear notch is solved; for greater reliability, you can measure the angles β1 and β2 and solve the combined notch.

As an adjacent direction with a known directional angle, you can use either the direction to one of the wall marks, or the direction to some other point with known coordinates.

In addition to the serif method, when tying passages to wall marks, the polar method and the reduction method are also used. In on pages 195 - 201 is given detailed description of these methods, as well as numerical examples.

2.2.2.5. The concept of a system of linear-angular moves

A set of linear-angular moves that have common points is called a system of moves; The nodal point is the point at which at least three moves converge. As for a separate linear - angular stroke, a strict and simplified processing of measurements is used for the system of strokes; we will consider simplified processing using the example of a system of three linear-angular moves with one nodal point (Fig. 2.23). Each move is based on a starting point with known coordinates; at each starting point there is a direction with a known directional angle.

Fig.2.23. System of linear-angular moves with one nodal point.

One side of any move passing through the nodal point is taken as the nodal direction (for example, side 4 - 7) and its directional angle is calculated for each move separately, starting from the initial directional angle in the course. Get three values of the directional angle of the nodal direction:

α1 - from the first move,
α2 - from the second move,
α3 - from the third move,

and calculate the average weight value from three, and the number 1 / ni is taken as the weight of an individual value, where ni is the number of angles in the course from the initial direction to the nodal direction (in Fig. 2.20 n1 = 4, n2 = 3, n3 = 5):

(2.94)

Considering the nodal direction as the original one, that is, having a known directional angle, the angular residuals are calculated separately in each stroke and corrections are made to the measured angles. According to the corrected angles, the directional angles of all sides of each move are calculated, and then the increments of coordinates on all sides of the moves.

By increments of coordinates, the coordinates of the nodal point are calculated for each move separately and three values of the X coordinate and three values of the Y coordinate of the nodal point are obtained.

The average weight values of the coordinates are calculated by the formulas:

(2.95),

(2.96)

Considering the nodal point as the starting point with known coordinates, the coordinate discrepancies are calculated for each move separately and corrections are introduced into the increments of coordinates along the sides of the moves. According to the corrected increments of coordinates, the coordinates of the points of all moves are calculated.

In short, the simplified processing of a system of linear-angular moves with one nodal point consists of two stages: obtaining the directional angle of the nodal direction and coordinates of the nodal point and processing each move separately.

2.3. The concept of triangulation

Triangulation is a group of triangles adjacent to one another, in which all three angles are measured; two or more points have known coordinates, the coordinates of the remaining points are to be determined. A group of triangles forms either a continuous network or a chain of triangles.

The coordinates of triangulation points are usually calculated on a computer using programs that implement strict LSM adjustment algorithms. In the triangulation preprocessing stage, triangles are sequentially solved one by one. In our geodesy course, we will consider the solution of only one triangle.

In the first triangle ABP (Fig. 2.24), the coordinates of two vertices (A and B) are known and its solution is performed in the following order:

Fig.2.24. Triangulation unit triangle

Calculate the sum of the measured angles,

Taking into account that in the triangle Σβ = 180o, the angular discrepancy is calculated:

Because the

This equation contains three unknown corrections β and can be solved only if there are two additional conditions.

These conditions look like:

whence it follows that

Calculate corrected angle values:

Solve the inverse problem between points A and B calculate the directional angle αAB and the length S3 of the side AB.

Using the sine theorem, find the lengths of the sides AP and BP:

Calculate the directional angles of the sides AP and BP:

Solve a direct geodetic problem from point A to point P and for control - from point B to point P; in this case, both solutions must coincide.

In continuous triangulation networks, in addition to the angles in triangles, they measure the lengths of individual sides of triangles and the directional angles of some directions; these measurements are performed with greater accuracy and play the role of additional input data. When adjusting continuous triangulation networks, the following conditions may arise in them:

shape conditions,

conditions for sum of angles,

horizon conditions,

pole conditions

basic conditions

directional angle conditions,

coordinate conditions.

The formula for counting the number of conditions in an arbitrary triangulation network is:

where n is the total number of measured angles in the triangles,
k - number of points in the network,
g is the amount of redundant initial data.

2.4. The concept of trilateration

Trilateration is a continuous network of triangles adjacent to one another, in which the lengths of all sides are measured; two points, at least, must have known coordinates (Fig. 2.25).

The solution of the first trilateration triangle, in which the coordinates of two points are known and two sides are measured, can be performed using the linear serif formulas, and point 1 must be indicated to the right or left of the reference line AB. In the second triangle, the coordinates of two points and the lengths of two sides are also known ; its solution is also carried out according to the formulas of a linear notch, and so on.

Fig.2.25. Diagram of a continuous trilateration network

You can do it differently: first calculate the angles of the first triangle using the cosine theorem, then, using these angles and the directional angle of the side AB, calculate the directional angles of the sides A1 and B1 and solve the direct geodesic problem from point A to point 1 and from point B to paragraph 1.

Thus, in each individual triangle of "pure" trilateration there are no redundant measurements and there is no possibility to perform measurement control, adjustment and accuracy assessment; in practice, in addition to the sides of triangles, it is necessary to measure some additional elements and build a network in such a way that geometric conditions arise in it.

The adjustment of continuous trilateration networks is performed on a computer according to programs in which the least squares algorithms are implemented.

GEODESY

Geodesy

General

Well

Candidate's examination for a general course in a specialty
Program
Candidate exam in generalexchange rate specialty 25. ... Almaty, 1990 Poklad G.G. Geodesy. - M: Nedra, 1988. - 304 p. Bokanova V.V. Geodesy. - M.: Nedra, 1980 ... - 268 p. Borsch-Komnonian V.I. Basics geodesy and mine surveying. - M.: Nedra, ...
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Soil types. Prerequisites: geodesy, ecology Contents course/ disciplines: General scheme of the soil-forming process. Chemical... soil types. Prerequisites: geodesy, ecology Contents course/ disciplines: General scheme of the soil-forming process. ...

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A great Russian scientist, he was nominated several times for the Nobel Prize, devoted his life to revealing the secrets of the human brain, treated people with hypnosis, studied telepathy and crowd psychology.

Mysticism and materialism

The experiments of Vladimir Bekhterev with hypnosis were ambiguously perceived by contemporaries, especially by the scientific community. At the end of the 19th century, the attitude towards hypnosis was skeptical: it was considered almost charlatanism and mysticism. Bekhterev proved that this mysticism can be used in an exclusively applied way. Vladimir Mikhailovich sent carts through the streets of the city, collecting drunkards of the capital and delivering them to the scientist, and then conducted sessions of mass treatment of alcoholism with the help of hypnosis. Only then, due to the incredible results of treatment, hypnosis is recognized as an official method of treatment.

brain map

Bekhterev approached the issue of studying the brain with the enthusiasm inherent in the discoverers of the era of the Great geographical discoveries. In those days, the brain was the real Terra Incognita. Based on a series of experiments, Bekhterev created a method that allows you to thoroughly study the paths of nerve fibers and cells. Thousands of the thinnest layers of the frozen brain were alternately attached under the glass of a microscope, and detailed sketches were made from them, which were used to create a “brain atlas”. One of the creators of such atlases, the German professor Kopsch, said: "Only two people know the structure of the brain perfectly - God and Bekhterev."

Parapsychology

In 1918, Bekhterev established an institute for the study of the brain. Under him, the scientist creates a laboratory for parapsychology, the main task of which was to study the reading of thought at a distance. Bekhterev was absolutely convinced of the materiality of thought and practical telepathy. To solve the problems of the world revolution, a group of scientists not only thoroughly studies neurobiological reactions, but also tries to read the language of Shambhala, plans a trip to the Himalayas as part of the Roerich expedition.

Analysis of the problem of communication

Questions of communication, the mutual psychological influence of people on each other occupy one of the central places in the socio-psychological theory and collective experiment of V. M. Bekhterev. Bekhterev considered the social role and functions of communication on the example of specific types of communication: imitation and suggestion. “If there were no imitation,” he wrote, “there could not be a person as a social individual, but meanwhile imitation draws its main material from communication with itself.
similar, between which, thanks to cooperation, a kind of mutual induction and mutual suggestion develops. Bekhterev was one of the first scientists to seriously study the psychology of the collective person and the psychology of the crowd.

Child psychology

The tireless scientist involved even his children in the experiments. It is thanks to his curiosity that modern scientists have knowledge of the psychology inherent in the infantile period of human maturation. In his article "The Initial Evolution of Children's Drawings in an Objective Study", Bekhterev analyzes the drawings of the "girl M", who is in fact his fifth child, his beloved daughter Masha. However, interest in the drawings soon faded away, leaving the door ajar to the untapped field of information that was now provided to followers. The new and the unknown has always distracted the scientist from what has already been started and partially mastered. Bekhterev opened the doors.

Experiments with animals

V. M. Bekhterev with the help of trainer V.L. Durova conducted about 1278 experiments of mental suggestion of information to dogs. Of these, 696 were considered successful, and then, according to the experimenters, solely because of incorrectly composed tasks. The processing of the material showed that "the dog's responses were not a matter of chance, but depended on the influence of the experimenter on it." Here is how V.M. Bekhterev's third experiment was when a dog named Pikki had to jump onto a round chair and hit the right side of the piano keyboard with its paw. “And here is the dog Pikki in front of Durov. He looks intently into her eyes, for some time covers her muzzle with his palms. A few seconds pass, during which Pikki remains motionless, but being released, he rushes swiftly to the piano, jumps up on a round chair, and from a paw strike on the right side of the keyboard, several treble notes are heard.

Unconscious telepathy

Bekhterev argued that the transmission and reading of information through the brain, this amazing ability, called telepathy, can be realized without the knowledge of the inspirer and transmitter. Numerous experiments on the transmission of thought at a distance were perceived in two ways. It was as a result of recent experiments that Bekhterev continued his further work "under the gunpoint of the NKVD." The possibilities of suggesting information to a person, which aroused the interest of Vladimir Mikhailovich, were much more serious than similar experiments with animals and, according to contemporaries, were interpreted by many as an attempt to create psychotronic weapons of mass destruction.

By the way...

Academician Bekhterev once noted that only 20% of people will be given the great happiness of dying, preserving their mind on the roads of life. The rest, by old age, will turn into evil or naive senile people and become ballast on the shoulders of their own grandchildren and adult children. 80% is much more than the number of those who are destined to get cancer, Parkinson's disease or die in old age from brittle bones. To enter the happy 20% in the future, it is important to start now.

Over the years, almost everyone begins to be lazy. We work hard in our youth so that we can rest in our old age. However, the more we calm down and relax, the more harm we do to ourselves. The level of requests is reduced to a banal set: "good food - plenty of sleep." Intellectual work is limited to solving crossword puzzles. The level of demands and claims to life and to others is increasing, the burden of the past is crushing. Irritation from misunderstanding of something results in a rejection of reality. Memory and thinking skills suffer. Gradually, a person moves away from the real world, creating his own, often cruel and hostile, painful fantasy world.

Dementia never comes suddenly. It progresses over the years, acquiring more and more power over a person. What is now just a prerequisite, in the future may become fertile ground for the germs of dementia. Most of all, it threatens those who have lived their lives without changing their attitudes. Such traits as excessive adherence to principles, perseverance and conservatism are more likely to lead to dementia in old age than flexibility, the ability to quickly change decisions, and emotionality. “The main thing, guys, is not to grow old with your heart!”

Here are some indirect signs that indicate that it is worth doing a brain upgrade.

1. You have become painfully sensitive to criticism, while you yourself criticize others too often.

2. You do not want to learn new things. Rather agree to repair an old mobile phone than understand the instructions for a new model.

3. You often say: “But before”, that is, you remember and are nostalgic for the old days.

4. You are ready to talk about something with rapture, despite the boredom in the eyes of the interlocutor. It doesn't matter that he will fall asleep now, the main thing is that what you are talking about is interesting to you.

5. You find it difficult to concentrate when you start reading serious or non-fiction. Poor understanding and memory of what you read. You can read half of a book today and forget the beginning tomorrow.

6. You began to talk about issues in which you were never versed. For example, about politics, economics, poetry or figure skating. Moreover, it seems to you that you have such a good command of the issue that you could start leading the state right tomorrow, become a professional literary critic or a sports judge.

7. Of the two films - the work of a cult director and a popular film novel / detective - you choose the second. Why stress again? You don’t understand at all what interesting someone finds in these cult directors.

8. You believe that others should adapt to you, and not vice versa.

9. Much in your life is accompanied by rituals. For example, you cannot drink your morning coffee from any mug other than your favorite without first feeding the cat and flipping through the morning paper. The loss of even one element would unsettle you for the whole day.

10. At times you notice that you tyrannize those around you with some of your actions, and you do it without malicious intent, but simply because you think that this is the right thing to do.

Brain development tips

Note that the brightest people, who retain their minds until old age, as a rule, are people of science and art. On duty, they have to strain their memory and do daily mental work. They keep their finger on the pulse of modern life all the time, tracking fashion trends and even being ahead of them in some ways. This "production necessity" is the guarantee of a happy and reasonable longevity.

1. Start learning something every two or three years. You do not have to go to college and get a third or even fourth education. You can take a short-term refresher course or learn a completely new profession. You can start eating those foods that you have not eaten before, learn new tastes.

2. Surround yourself with young people. From them you can always pick up all sorts of useful things that will help you always stay up-to-date. Play with children, they can teach you a lot that you don't even know about.

3. If you haven't learned anything new for a long time, maybe you just haven't been looking? Look around you, how many new and interesting things are happening where you live.

4. From time to time solve intellectual problems and take all kinds of subject tests.

5. Learn foreign languages, even if you don't speak them. The need to regularly memorize new words will help train your memory.

6. Grow not only up, but also deep! Get out old textbooks and periodically recall the school and university curriculum.

7. Go in for sports! Regular physical activity before gray hair and after - really saves from dementia.

8. Train your memory more often by forcing yourself to remember poems that you once knew by heart, dance steps, programs that you learned at the institute, phone numbers of old friends and much more - everything you can remember.

9. Break up habits and rituals. The more the next day will be different from the previous one, the less likely you are to "smoky" and come to dementia. Drive to work on different streets, give up the habit of ordering the same dishes, do something that you have never been able to do before.

10. Give more freedom to others and do as much as possible yourself. The more spontaneity, the more creativity. The more creativity, the longer you keep your mind and intellect!

The hanging linear-angular course C-e-k-m (Fig. 13.1) is based on the original

point C with known coordinates and for it the initial directional angle α ce is determined only at the beginning of the move.

A free linear-angular move does not have starting points and starting directional angles either at the beginning or at the end of the move.

According to the accuracy of measuring horizontal angles and distances, linear-angle moves are divided into two large groups: theodolite passages and polygonal

metric moves.

IN theodolite passages horizontal angles are measured with an error of no more than 30 "; the relative error in measuring distances mS / S ranges from

1/1000 to 1/3000.

IN polygonometric moves horizontal angles are measured with an error from 0.4 "to 10", and the relative error in measuring distances mS / S was

ranges from 1/5000 to 1/300,000.

According to the measurement accuracy, polygonometric moves are divided into two categories and 4 classes discussed earlier.

13.2. Binding of linear-angular moves

Under the binding of an open linear-angular course is understood the combination of its initial and final points with the starting points of the geodetic network, the coordinates of which are known. At the starting points, the angles between the direction with a known directional angle (αbegin and αend) and the first (last) side of the stroke are measured; these angles are called adjoining.

In addition to these standard situations, there are cases when a linear-angular move begins or ends at a point with unknown coordinates.

tami. In such cases, there is an additional problem of determining the coordinates of this point. The easiest way to determine the coordinates of one point is geodetic serifs; if there are several known points near the determined point, then by performing k angular and (or) linear measurements (k > 2), it is possible to calculate the required coordinates using standard algorithms. If this is not possible, then there are special cases of binding; let's look at some of them.

Demolition of coordinates from the top of the sign to the ground. On fig. 13.3 point P - define

divided, and the points Т 1 , T 2 , T 3 are the initial ones with known coordinates. The three starting points can only be used as sighting targets. From point P, two angles are measured according to the program of reverse angular resection, but three points and two angles are not enough to fully control the solution of the problem. In addition, if the distance between points P and T 1 is small, the resection angle will be excessively small and the resection accuracy will be low. To ensure the reliability of the problem, lay two time points A 1 and A 2 and measure the distances b 1 , b 2 and the angles β1 , β2 , β3 , β4 ,. β5 , β6 .

Rice. 13.3. Scheme of demolition of point coordinates on the ground

Thus, the total number of measurements is 8, and the number of unknowns is 6 (coordinates of three points). The processing of this geodetic construction must be performed by the least squares adjustment (LSM), but an approximate, sufficiently accurate solution can be obtained using the final formulas given below. The following calculations are made:

∙ calculation of the distance s (s = T 1 P ) two times: from the triangles PA 1 T 1 and PA 2 T2 and then the average of the two:

S = 0.5 [(b 1 sinβ5 ) / sin(β1 + β5 )] + [(b 2 sinβ6 ) / sin(β2 + β6 )] . (13.1)

∙ solution of the inverse geodesic problem between points T 1 and T 2 (calculation

α12 , L 1 )

and T 1 and T 3 (calculating α13 and L 2 ); (solution is known and not given here) ∙ calculation of angles µ1 and µ2 from triangles PT 2 T 1 and PT 3 T 1 :

∙ calculation of angles λ1 and λ2 from triangles PT 2T 1 and PT 3T 1:

∙ calculation of the directional angle of the line T 1P :

α \u003d 0.5 [(α12 - A 1) + (α13 + A 2)];

∙ solution of the direct geodesic problem from point T to point P :

X P \u003d X A + S cos α;

Y P \u003d Y A + S sin α.

13.3. Binding of linear-angular travel to wall marks

Wall marks are laid in the basement or in the wall of a capital building; their designs are different and are shown in the relevant sections of educational and technical literature. Wall marks are laid and their coordinates are determined when creating geodetic networks on the territory of populated areas and industrial enterprises; in the future, these marks play the role of reference points in subsequent geodetic constructions.

The scheme for linking point P of the move to two marks A and B is shown in Fig. 13.4, but. On the line AB, using a tape measure, the segments АР, РВ and АВ = S are measured, then the coordinates of the point P are found from the solution of the direct geodesic problem using

α - directional angle of direction AB .

Rice. 13.4. Binding of points of a linear-angular course to wall marks

The scheme for linking point P of the move to three marks A, B, C is shown in Fig. 13.4, b. Using a tape measure, the distances S 1 , S 2 , S 3 are measured and a multiple linear notch is solved according to the formulas given in the technical and educational literature.

As an adjacent direction with a known directional angle, you can use either the direction to one of the wall marks, or the direction to some other point with known coordinates.

In addition to the serif method, when tying passages to wall marks, the polar method and the reduction method are also used, which are also considered in the technical and educational literature.

13.4. The concept of a system of linear-angular moves

A set of linear-angular moves that have common points is called a system of moves; The nodal point is the point at which at least three moves converge. As for a separate linear - angular stroke, a strict and simplified processing of measurements is used for the system of strokes; we will consider simplified processing using the example of a system of three linear-angular moves with one nodal point (Fig. 13.5). Each move is based on a starting point with known coordinates; at each starting point there is a direction with a known directional angle.

One side of any move passing through the nodal point is taken as the nodal direction (for example, side 4 - 7) and its directional angle is calculated for each move separately, starting from the initial directional angle in the course. In the case of measuring left along the angles β, three values of the directional angle of the nodal direction α4-7 are obtained:

and calculate the average value of the three, and the number 1 / n i is taken as the mathematical weight of an individual value, where n i is the number of angles in the course from the initial direction to the nodal direction (in Fig. 13.5 n 1 = 4, n 2 = 3, n 3 = 5):

Considering the nodal direction as the original one and knowing its directional angle, the angular residuals are calculated separately in each move and corrections are introduced into the